TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION  SERIES 


P 


R 


A  INTER 


ACfflGA 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES. 


A  Series  of  Practical  Manuals. 


Edited  by  PAUL  N.  HAC 


^  cent^ 


'">rk,”  “Technical  Instruction 


House  Deco 
With  79  ' 

Contents.- 
Painters, 
and  Decor 
Walls  and 
Boot  Mr 
179 
Conten 
and  Re- 
the  Heel 
How  to 
C  outer, 

Making 
Shaded 
ing.  Le 
Wood  1 
ings 
Contei 
ing.  Pi 
Wax  Fi 
Stoppin 
V  arnishi 
Dynam 
C  outer 
Simplex 
Ailment 
motors 
How  to 
Type  i.4 
Cycle  1 
Conte 
Rear-dr 
ing  a  H 
ries.  V 
Decor: 

Conte 
Orname 
and  Sc. 
ments. 

Mount 
Contt 
Making 
Making 
Packini 

Smiths’  Work.  Witn  iiii  engravings  itllU  l/rogramoi 

Contents. — Forges  and  Appliances.  Hand  Tools.  Drawing  Down  and  Up-setting. 
Welding  and  Punching.  Conditions  of  Work:  Principles  of  Formation.  Bending  and 
Ring  Making.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Forged  Work.  Cranks,  Model  Work,  and 
Die  Forging.  Home-made  1'orges.  The  Manipulation  of  Steel  at  the  Forge. 


SA-rj 


Painting,  etc. 

Tools  used  by 
Whitewashing 
ibellishment  of 

suing.  With 

Re-Welting 
ng.  Making 

l  Diagrams, 
iter’s  Outfit. 
i>f  Lettering. 
Poster-Paint- 

Vith  Engrav- 

rench  Polish- 
Glazing  and 
iving.  Hard 
lishing  Wood 


ster  Dynamo, 
ill  Dynamos. 
Imall  Electro- 
i  of  a  Motor. 
Manchester 


.  Building  a 
cycle.  Build- 
i  and  Accesso- 
Repairing. 
tnd  Diagrams, 
ment.  Greek 
iment.  Celtic 
Modern  Orna- 
ese  Ornament. 

rame  Cramps, 
ting  Pictures. 
Hanging  and 


Glass  Working  by  Heat  and  Abrasion.  With  300  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Appliances  used  in  Glass  Blowing.  Manipulating  Glass  Tubing.  Blowing 
Bulbs  and  Flasks.  Jointing  Tubes  to  Bulbs  forming  Thistle  Funnels,  etc.  Blowing  and 
Etching  Glass  Fancy  Articles;  Embossing  and  Gilding  Flat  Surfaces.  Utilising  Broken 
Glass  Apparatus;  Boring  Holes  in,  and  Riveting  Glass.  Hand-working  of  Telescope 
Specula.  Turning,  Chipping,  and  Grinding  Glass.  The  Manufacture  of  Glass. 


DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIFS  ( Continued ). 


Building  Slodel  Boats.  With  16a  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Building  Model  Yachts.  Rigging  and  Sailing  Model  Yachts.  Making  and 
Fitting  Simple  Model  Boats.  Building  a  Model  Atlantic  Liner.  Vertical  Engine  for  a 
Model  Launch.  Model  Launch  Engine  with  Reversing  Gear.  Making  a  Show  Case  for 
a  Model  Boat. 

Electric  Bells,  How  to  Make  and  Fit  Them.  With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Electric  Current  and  the  Laws  that  Govern  it.  Current  Conductors 
used  in  Electric-Bell  Work.  Wiring  for  Electric  Bells.  Elaborated  Systems  of  Wiring; 
Burglar  Alarms.  Batteries  for  Electric  Bells.  The  Construction  of  Electric  Bells,  Pushes, 
and  Switches.  Indicators  for  Electric-Bell  Systems. 

Bamboo  Work.  With  177  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bamboo:  Its  Sources  and  Uses.  How  to  Work  Bamboo.  Bamboo  Tables. 
Bamboo  Chairs  and  Seats.  Bamboo  Bedroom  Furniture.  Bamboo  Hall  Racks  and  Stands. 
Bamboo  Music  Racks.  Bamboo  Cabinets  and  Bookcases.  Bamboo  Window  Blinds. 
Miscellaneous  Articles  of  Bamboo.  Bamboo  Mail  Cart. 

Taxidermy.  With  108  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Skinning  Birds.  Stuffing  and  Mounting  Birds.  Skinning  and  Stuffing 
Mammals.  Mounting  Animals’  Horned  Heads:  Polishing  and  Mounting  Horns.  Skin¬ 
ning,  Stuffing,  and  Casting  Fish.  Preserving,  Cleaning,  and  Dyeing  Skins.  Preserving 
Insects,  and  Birds’  Eggs.  Cases  for  Mounting  Specimens. 

Tailoring.  With  180  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tailors’  Requisites  and  Methods  of  Stitching.  Simple  Repairs  and  Press¬ 
ing.  Relining,  Repocketing,  and  Recollaring.  How  to  Cut  and  Make  Trousers.  How 
to  Cut  and  Make  Vests.  Cutting  and  Making  Lounge  and  Reefer  Jackets.  Cutting  and 
Making  Morning  and  Frock  Coats. 

Photographic  Cameras  and  Accessories.  Comprising  How  to  Make  Cameras, 
Dark  Slides,  Shutters,  and  Stands.  With  160  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Photographic  Lenses  and  How  to  Test  them.  Modern  Half-plate  Cameras. 
Hand  and  Pocket  Cameras.  Ferrotype  Cameras.  Stereoscopic  Cameras.  Enlarging 
Cameras.  Dark  Slides.  Cinematograph  Management. 

Optical  Lanterns.  Comprising  The  Construction  and  Management  of  Optical 
Lanterns  and  the  Making  of  Slides.  With  160  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Single  Lanterns.  Dissolving  View  Lanterns.  Illuminant  for  Optical  Lan¬ 
terns.  Optical  Lantern  Accessories.  Conducting  a  Lime-light  Lantern  Exhibition.  Ex¬ 
periments  with  Optical  Lanterns.  Painting  Lantern  Slides.  Photographic  Lantern 
Slides.  Mechanical  Lantern  Slides.  Cinematograph  Management. 

Engraving  Metals.  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents.— Introduction  and  Terms  used.  Engravers’  Tools  and  their  Uses.  Ele¬ 
mentary  Exercises  in  Engraving.  Engraving  Plate  and  Precious  Metals.  Engraving 
Monograms.  Transfer  Process  of  Engraving  Metals.  Engraving  Name  Plates.  En¬ 
graving  Coffin  Plates.  Engraving  Steel  Plates.  Chasing  and  Embossing  Metals.  Etch¬ 
ing  Metals. 

Basket  Work.  With  189  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Simple  Baskets.  Grocer’s  Square  Baskets.  Round 
Baskets.  Oval  Baskets.  Flat  Fruit  Baskets.  Wicker  Elbow  Chairs.  Basket  Bottle- 
casings.  Doctors’  and  Chemists’  Baskets.  Fancy  Basket  Work.  Sussex  Trug  Basket. 
Miscellaneous  Basket  Work.  Index. 

Bookbinding.  With  125  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bookbinders’  Appliances.  Folding  Printed  Book  Sheets.  Beating  and 
Sewing.  Rounding,  Backing,  and  Cover  Cutting.  Cutting  Book  Edges.  Covering 
Books.  Cloth-bound  Books,  Pamphlets,  etc.  Account  Books,  Ledgers,  etc  Coloring, 
Sprinkling,  and  Marbling  Book  Edges.  Marbling  Book  Papers.  Gilding  Book  Edges. 
Sprinkling  and  Tree  Marbling  Book  Covers.  Lettering,  Gilding,  and  Finishing  Book 
Covers.  Index. 

Bent  Iron  Work.  Including  Elementary  Art  Metal  Work.  With  269  Engravings 
and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Bending  and  Working  Strip  Iron.  Simple  Exercises 
in  Bent  Iron.  Floral  Ornaments  for  Bent  Iron  Work.  Candlesticks.  Hall  Lanterns. 
Screens,  Grilles,  etc.  Table  Lamps.  Suspended  Lamps  and  Flower  Bowls.  Photo¬ 
graph  Frames.  Newspaper  Rack.  Floor  Lamps.  Miscellaneous  Examples.  Index. 

Photography.  With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Camera  and  its  Accessories.  The  Studio  and  the  Dark  Room.  Plates. 
Exposure.  Developing  and  Fixing  Negatives.  Intensification  and  Reduction  of  Nega¬ 
tives.  Portraiture  and  Picture  Composition.  Flash-light  Photography.  Retouching 
Negatives.  Processes  of  Printing  from  Negatives.  Mounting  and  Finishing  Prints. 
Copying  and  Enlarging.  Stereoscopic  Photography.  Ferrotype  Photography. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIFS  {Continued). 


Upholstery.  With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Upholsterers’  Materials.  Upholsterers’  Tools  and  Appliances.  Webbing, 
Springing,  Stuffing,  and  Tufting.  Making  Seat  Cushions  and  Squabs.  Upholstering  an 
Easy  Chair.  Upholstering  Couches  and  Sofas.^  Upholstering  Footstools,  Fenderettes, 
etc.  Miscellaneous  Upholstery.  Mattress  Making  and  Repaiiing.  Fancy  Upholstery. 
Renovating  and  Repairing  Upholstered  Furniture.  Planning  and  Laying  Carpets  and 
Linoleum.  Index. 

Leather  Working.  With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Qualities  and  Varieties  of  Leather.  Strap  Cutting  and  Making.  Letter 
Cases  and  Writing  Pads.  Hair  Brush  and  Collar  Cases.  Hat  Cases.  Banjo  and  Man¬ 
doline  Cases.  Bags.  Portmanteaux  and  Travelling  Trunks.  Knapsacks  and  Satchels. 
Leather  Ornamentation.  Footballs.  Dyeing  Leather.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of 
Leather  Work.  Index. 

Harness  Making.  With  197  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Harness  Makers’  Tools.  Harness  Makers’  Materials.  Simple  Exercises  in 
Stitching.  Looping.  Cart  Harness.  Cart  Collars.  Cart  Saddles.  Fore  Gear  and  Leader 
Harness.  Plough  Harness.  Bits,  Spurs,  Stirrups,  and  Harness  Furniture.  Van  and  Cab 
Harness.  Index. 

Saddlery.  With  99  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Gentleman’s  Riding  Saddle.  Panel  for  Gentleman’s  Saddle.  Ladies’  Side 
Saddles.  Children’s  Saddles  or  Pilches.  Saddle  Cruppers,  Breastplates,  and  other 
Accessories.  Riding  Bridles.  Breaking-down  Tackel.  Head  Collars.  Horse  Clothing. 
Knee-caps  and  Miscellaneous  Articles.  Repairing  Harness  and  Saddlery.  Re-lining 
Collars  and  Saddles.  Riding  and  Driving  Whips.  Superior  Set  of  Gig  Harness.  Index. 

Knotting  and  Splicing,  Ropes  and  Cordage.  With  208  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction.  Rope  Formation.  Simple  and  Useful  Knots.  Eye  Knots, 
Hitches  and  Bends.  Ring  Knots  and  Rope  Shortenings.  Ties  and  Lashings.  Fancy 
I  pilots.  _  Rope  Splicing.  Working  Cordage.  Hammock  Making.  Lashings  and  Ties  for 
Scaffolding.  Splicing  and  Socketing  Wire  Ropes.  Index. 

Beehives  and  Beekeepers’  Appliances.  With  155  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.  — ^-Introduction.  A  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  Temporary  Beehive.  Tiering  Bar- 
Frame  Beehive.  The  “  W.  B.  C.”  Beehive.  Furnishing  and  Stocking  a  Beehive.  Obser¬ 
vatory  Beehive  for  Permanent  Use.  Observatory  Beehive  for  Temporary  Use.  Inspection 
Case  for  Beehives.  Hive  for  Rearing  Queen  Bees.  Super-Clearers.  Bee  Smoker. 
Honey  Extractors.  Wax  Extractors.  Beekeepers’  Miscellaneous  Appliances.  Index. 

Electro-Plating.  With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction.  tanks,  Vats,  and  other  Apparatus.  Batteries,  Dynamos, 
and  Electrical  Accessories.  Appliances  for  Preparing  and  finishing  Work.  '  Silver- 
Plating.  Copper-Plating.  Gold-Plating.  Nickel-Plating  and  Cycle-Plating.  Finishing 
Electro-Plated  Goods.  Electro-Plating  with  Various  Metals  and  Alloys.  Index. 

Clay  Modelling  and  Plaster  Casting.  With  ,153  Illustrations. 

Contents • — Drawing  for  Modellers.  Tools  and  Materials  for  Clay  Modelling.  Clay  Model¬ 
ling.  Modelling  Ornament.  Modelling  the  Human  Figure.  Waste-Moulding  Process  of 
Plaster  Casting.  Piece-Moulding  and  Gelatine-Moulding.  Taking  Plaster  Casts  from 
Nature.  Clay  Squeezing  or  Clay  Moulding.  Finishing  Plaster  Casts.  Picture  Frames 
in  Plaster.  Index. 

Violins  and  other  Stringed  Instruments.  With  about  180  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Materials  and  Tools  for  Violin  Making.  Violin  Moulds.  Violin  Making. 
Varnishing  and  Finishing  Violins.  Double  Bass  and  a  Violoncello.  Japanese  One-string 
Violin.  Mandolin  Making.  Guitar  Making.  Banjo  Making.  Zither  Makin".  Dulcimer 
Making.  Index. 

Glass  Writing,  Embossing,  and  Fascia  Work.  (Including  the  Making  and  Fixing 
of  Wood  Letters  and  Illuminated  Signs.)  With  129  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Plain  Lettering  and  Simple  Tablets.  Gold  Lettering.  Blocked  Letters. 
Stencil  Cutting.  Gold  Etching.  Embossing.  French  or  Treble  Embossing.  Incised 
Fascias,  Stall-plates,  and  Grained  Background.  Letters  in  Perspective;  Spacing  Letters. 
Arrangement  of  Wording  and  Colors.  Wood  Letters.  Illuminated  Signs.  Temporary 
Signs  for  Windows.  Imitation  Inlaid  Signs.  Imitation  Mosaic  Signs.  Specimen  Alpha¬ 
bets.  Index. 


Other  New  Volumes  in  Preparation. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia, 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/practicalpainterOOhasl 


THE  GETTY  CENTER 

LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 


Practical  Painters’  Work  contains,  in  a  form  convenient 
for  everyday  use,  a  comprehensive  digest  of  information,  con¬ 
tributed  by  experienced  craftsmen,  scattered  over  the  columns 
of  Building  World,  one  of  the  weekly  journals  it  is  my 
fortune  to  edit,  and  supplies  concise  information  on  the  general 
principles  and  practice  of  the  art  on  which  it  treats. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  bulk  of  the  matter  contained  in 
this  book  was  contributed  by  Mr.  William  Fourniss,  late 
examiner  in  painters’  and  decorators’  work  to  the  City  Guilds 
of  London  Institute. 

Pleaders  who  may  desire  additional  information  respecting 
special  details  of  the  matters  dealt  with  in  this  book,  of 
instructions  on  any  building  trade  subjects,  should  address  a 
question  to  the  Editor  of  Building  World,  La  Belle  Sauvage, 
London,  E.C.,  so  that  it  may  be  answered  in  the  columns 
of  that  journal. 

P.  1ST.  HASLUCK. 

La  Belle  Sauvage,  London. 

April,  1906. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. —Objects,  Principles,  and  Processes  of  Painting  .  9 

IE. — Painters’  Tools  and  Appliances  ....  17 

III.  — Materials  used  by  Painters . 39 

IV.  — Paint  Mixing . 60 

Y. — -Preparing  Surfaces  for  Painting  ....  70 

VI. — Painting  Woodwork . 80 

VII. — Painting  Ironwork . ~87 

VIII.— Painting  Stucco  or  Plaster;  Distempering  and  White¬ 
washing  . 92 

IX. — Colour  Combination . 106 

X. — House  Painting . 117 

XL— Varnish  and  Varnishing . 130 

XII. — Stains  and  Staining . .  .  no 

XIII.— Estimating  and  Measuring  Painters’  Work  .  .  145 

Index . . 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

I,  2.— Window  or  Gallows  Bracket 

3,  4.— Painters’  Boat  .... 
—Double  Sheave-blocks  for  Painters’  Boat  . 

'  6,  7.— Paint  Strainer  and  its  Parts 

8.— Davis’s  Paint  Strainer 
0. — Square  Strainer  or  Sieve 
10.— Suspending  Brushes  in  Oil  . 

II,  12.— Tying  up  Paint  Brush 
13,  14. — Tying  up  Paint  Brush 

15-17.— Stipplers  ••'••• 

18. — Dusting  Brush  .  .  .  •  • 

19. — Dusting  Brush  . 

20. — Dusting  Brush  . 

21. — One-knot  Ground  Brush 

22.  — One-knot  Ground  Brush 

23.  — Flat  Varnish  Brush  . 

24.  — Flat  Varnish  Brush  .  .  •  • 

25. — Round  Varnish  Brush 

26. — Distemper  Brush  with  Copper  Band 

27.  — Distemper  Brush  with  Copper  Band 
28—  Flat  Distemper  Brush  with  Copper  Band 

29. — String-bound  Sash  Tool 

30. — Crowquill 

31. — Duck  ...••• 

32. — Goose  •••••• 

33. — Swan  ...... 

34. — Palette  Knife  ..... 


8 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


FIG.  PAGE 

35. — Stopping  Knife  .........  3b 

30. — Chisel  Knife  .........  35 

37,  38.— Aerograph  Spray  Painter  Handpiece  and  Cup  .  .  .37 

39.  — Star  Whitewashing  Machine  .  .  .  .  .38 

40.  — Cone  Paint  Mill  .....  .  .  62 

41.  — Paint  Mill  with  Paddles  and  Hinged  Cylinder  .  .  .63 

42. — Paint  Mill  Paddles  ........  64 

43.  — "Little  Giant”  Paint  Mixer  .  .  .  .  .  .65 

44.  — Chromatic  Circle,  Inner  Circle  Showing  Results  of  Adding  White 

to  Colours  in  Outer  Circle  .  .  .  .  .  .109 

45.  — Chromatic  Circle,  Inner  Circle  Showing  Results  of  Comhining 

Complementary  Pairs  of  Colours  .....  m 


PRACTICAL 
PAINTERS’  WORK. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OBJECTS,  PRINCIPLES,  AND  PROCESSES  OF  PAINTING. 

The  covering  of  a  large  surface  with  an  even  and  solid 
coat  of  paint  is  an  interesting  process,  which,  being  carried 
on  under  widely  varied  conditions,  calls  for  great  skill  and 
taste.  It  requires  also  much  forethought  to  save  needless 
expenditure  of  labour  and  material.  How  necessary  it  is, 
then,  that  a  painter  should  have  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  purpose  of  each  step  in  each  process,  as  well  as  of  the 
temper  and  nature  of  the  various  materials  employed. 

To  protect,  cleanse,  and  embellish  is  the  object  of  paint¬ 
ing.  Deleterious  gases,  acids  in  the  atmosphere,  water, 
variations  in  the  temperature,  affect  the  materials  used  in 
building  construction.  Paint,  therefore,  is  used  as  a  pro¬ 
tection  to  those  materials,  and  withstands  the  action  of 
the  influences  that  are  destructive  to  their  surfaces.  But 
paint  is  itself  affected  by  atmospherical  influences,  though 
usually  to  a  less  extent  than  the  surfaces  to  which  it  is 
applied ;  it  is  affected  also  by  chemical  action  of  its  own, 
and  by  the  influence  of  light. 

Gases  in  the  air,  such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  am¬ 
monia,  etc.,  are  enemies  to  paint,  therefore  the  pigments 
and  vehicles  chosen  must  be  able  to  resist  these  destroying 
agents.  The  vehicles,  such  as  oil,  used  for  binding  and 
applying  the  colour,  are  also  useful  in  resisting  moisture, 
which  is  so  injurious  that  its  presence  in  the  substance 
painted,  in  the  colour,  or  in  the  brushes  when  in  use 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

Paint  should  be  applied  sparingly,  and  must  consist  of 
materials  that  blend  without  being  mutually  destructive, 
that  protect  efficiently  the  surface  to  which  they  are  ap¬ 
plied,  and  that  present  a  solid  and  agreeable  colour. 

Paint  should  “  bear  out  ” — that  is  to  say,  should  be 


10 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


so  made  that  an  even  solidity  and  quality  of  surface  may 
be  presented.  The  work  must  be  of  one  regular  quality, 
not  glossy  in  one  part  and  dull  in  another.  Deadness  must 
not  be  confused  with  flatness  ;  natural  deadness  in  paint 
implies  bad  or  decayed  material,  but  artificial  deadness  or 
flatness  shows  quality  in  the  colour  because  of  the  binding 
beneath  the  flat  finish.  It  is  this  binding  which  offers  a 
solid  resistance  to  the  destructive  forces  before  mentioned. 

In  re-painting  old  work,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
remove  all  grease,  damp,  and  dirt,  and  the  next  to  repair 
bad  places.  If  the  work  is  in  a  fairly  good  condition,  a 
good  wash  with  water  in  which  a  piece  of  soda  has  been 
dissolved  is  sufficient — the  more  the  grease  and  dirt  the 
more  the  soda — but  the  solution  must  not  be  so  strong  as 
to  remove  the  paint :  1  oz.  of  soda  to  1  pint  of  water  is 
about  right.  The  hard  outer  surface  of  the  paint  should 
be  removed  with  pumice-stone,  to  ensure  the  adhesion 
of  the  successive  coats.  For  this  work  there  will  be  re¬ 
quired  a  double  pot  containing  the  dissolved  soda,  a  pail 
of  clean  water,  and  a  brush  for  each. 

Faults  in  the  groundwork,  such  as  resinous  and  damp 
places,  rough  and  uneven  parts,  and  holes,  stains,  and 
anything  likely  to  affect  the  after  work,  must  be  dealt 
with  at  the  outset.  A  conscientious  workman  will  do  what 
he  can  to  prevent  the  troubles  with  which  he  has  to  con¬ 
tend  from  recurring  in  the  future.  All  parts  have  to  be 
brought  to  an  even  surface  with  as  little  waste  of  labour 
and  material  as  possible.  The  necessary  preparatory  work 
should  be  governed  by  knowledge  of  how  the  various 
materials  will  behave  in  given  circumstances — a  knowledge 
that  can  be  obtained  only  by  experience  and  by  careful 
and  intelligent  observation. 

The  proportions  of  the  materials  used  and  the  methods 
of  setting  about  the  work,  depend  on  variable  circum¬ 
stances,  such  as  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  surface  to  be  painted,  the  nature  of 
the  materials,  and  the  amount  of  money  allowed  for  the 
work,  the  last-named  condition  regulating  more  particu¬ 
larly  the  number  of  coats  of  paint,  while  the  ultimate 
finish  depends  also  on  the  time  allowed  in  preparation. 
Hence  proportions  and  methods  cannot  be  definitely  stated 
once  for  all,  but  must  vary  with  the  local  conditions. 


OBJECTS,  PRINCIPLES,  AND  PROCESSES.  11 


The  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  painting  new  wood¬ 
work  are  due  chiefly  to  the  presence  of  resin,  knots,  and 
damp,  and  to  unevenness  of  surface.  Even  the  marks  of 
the  plane,  unless  removed,  will  show  in  the  finished  paint¬ 
ing.  Successive  coats  of  paint  emphasise  them,  and  var¬ 
nish  helps  to  bring  them  into  relief.  Every  precaution 
must  therefore  be  taken  to  overcome  the  resin  and  the 
knots,  to  remove  moisture  and  keep  it  away,  to  cleanse  the 
work  from  all  dirt  and  grease,  and  to  secure  a  level 
surface. 

New  work  requires  filling  to  make  the  surface  level, 
and  old  work  needs  facing  with  putty.  When  the  paint 
has  accumulated  on  old  woodwork,  it  must  be  burnt  off. 

The  several  steps  in  preparing  for  painting,  are  knot¬ 
ting,  priming,  puttying  or  stopping,  filling  up,  and  glass- 
papering.  These  processes  are  described  in  detail  in 
Chapter  V.,  p.  VO. 

A  coat  of  paint  should  never  be  applied  till  the  one 
below  is  thoroughly  dry,  otherwise  crinkling  is  likely  to 
occur.  It  must  be  applied  thinly,  so  that  it  can  harden 
quickly.  Too  much  paint  is  as  bad  as  too  little.  In  using 
the  brush,  the  same  amount  of  pressure  should  be  exerted 
all  over  the  work,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  want  of  uni¬ 
formity  in  the  appearance  of  the  finished  surface.  The 
successive  strokes  of  the  brush  should  be  made  towards 
the  already  painted  part ;  thus  less  paint  is  required,  and 
time  is  saved.  The  tinting  of  the  various  coats  is  in¬ 
tended,  first,  to  make  patches  similar  in  colour  to  the  rest 
of  the  ground,  and,  secondly,  to  obtain  the  tint  of  the  final 
coat.  The  several  coats  of  colour  will  combine  better  if 
they'  are  alternately  oily  and  flat. 

Absorption  or  suction  should,  in  every  case,  be  stopped. 
Water  must  be  kept  out  of  the  paint;  driers  must  only 
be  used  sparingly,  and  there  should  not  be  too  much  oil. 
It  is  useless  attempting  to  paint  in  oil  colour  on  a  damp 
surface. 

Part  of  the  discoloration  which  takes  place  with  white- 
lead  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  oil.  Though  turpentine  is 
volatile,  it  helps  to  join  the  pigment  and  the  oil,  and  an 
excess  of  oil  will  hasten  and  develop  discoloration  of 
paint ;  but  this  can  be  checked  to  some  extent  by  the 
addition  of  some  turpentine.  This  last  also  has  a  resinous 


12 


PRACTICAL  PAIN  TP  US’  WORK. 


property,  which  makes  paint  hard  and  durable.  Painters’ 
lead  is  a  very  sensitive  substance,  easily  decomposed ;  oil 
turns  it  brown,  and  exposure  in  time  turns  it  yellow. 

Driers  are  much  too  freely  used  in  paint.  Warmth, 
ventilation,  and  intervals  of  time  between  the  coats  will 
greatly  aid  the  drying  of  paint.  If,  however,  driers  are 
used,  it  is  well  to  select  those  of  similar  nature  to  the 
lead,  such  as  litharge  or  sugar  of  lead,  because  they  com¬ 
bine  better.  The  interval  to  allow  between  coats  greatly 
depends  on  the  time  the  paint  takes  to  dry,  the  amount  of 
warm  air  that  acts  on  it,  and  the  quantity  of  driers  in  the 
paint.  In  ordinary  circumstances,  white-lead,  when  used 
with  3  parts  of  raw  linseed  oil  to  1  part  of  turps,  will  dry 
without  the  addition  of  artificial  driers.  If  more  linseed 
oil  is  used  than  necessary  for  a  pigment,  driers  must  be 
employed  ;  but  they  weaken  the  paint,  the  most  permanent 
colour  being  that  with  which  the  smallest  quantity  of 
driers  has  been  used. 

The  stopping  ought  to  be  smoothed  before  the  second 
coat  of  colour  is  applied,  and,  as  a  rule,  all  roughness 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible.  The  principal 
rubbing  down,  however,  is  after  the  second  colour.  In  lay¬ 
ing  these  coats  of  colour,  the  brush  is  held  at  right  angles 
to  the  face  of  the  work,  which  is  thus  touched  by  the  end 
of  the  brush  only.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  dip  too 
deeply,  and  not  to  allow  any  colour  to  enter  the  stock 
of  the  brush.  The  colour  must  be  spread  evenly  over  the 
surface,  crossed  diagonally  so  that  it  lies  even,  and  finished 
with  a  light  touch  up  and  down. 

A  few  principles  must  be  attended  to  when  painting  in 
oil  colour.  First,  do  not  overload  the  surface  with  paint, 
which,  if  spread  too  thickly,  will  crack.  The  coat  of  colour 
must  be  mixed  well,  in  order  to  penetrate  and  grip  the 
ground  below,  and  dry  hard  quickly.  If  too  much  colour 
is  applied  to  metal  surfaces  it  will  flake  off.  A  brush-mark 
or  flaw  in  the  first  coat,  unless  removed,  will  show  in  the 
last  coat,  no  matter  how  many  coats  are  applied;  each 
coat  of  colour  on  the  top  of  a  rough  mark  makes  it  more 
difficult  to  remove. 

The  work  must  be  hard  enough  for  pumicing,  and  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  rub  through  the  hard  surface  of  the 
colour  to  the  softer  part  underneath.  Directly  the  work 


OBJECTS,  PRINCIPLES,  AND  PROCESSES.  13 


grows  soft  under  the  pumice-stone,  it  must  be  allowed 
to  harden  before  proceeding  further.  It  is  advisable  not 
to  pumice  till  all  is  thoroughly  hard.  Endeavour  to  work 
each  coat  of  colour  so  as  to  make  all  similar  in  nature, 
equally  elastic  and  equally  dry,  so  that  one  coat  will  aid 
the  others  to  acquire  solidity  of  surface  and  colour. 

The  object  of  glasspapering  is  to  make  the  work  smooth 
by  removing  the  surface  roughness ;  inequalities  of  sur¬ 
face  are  best  obliterated  with  pumice-stone.  Glasspaper¬ 
ing  should  not  cause  scratches ;  to  produce  a  geometric 
pattern  of  such  marks  over  the  work  is  not  the  object 
Hold  the  glasspaper  lightly,  and  rub  the  surface  of  the 
work  with  a  circular  motion  ;  for  woodstaining,  the  motion 
should  be  upwai'ds  and  downwards.  Although  worn  glass- 
paper  does  not  cut  so  effectually  as  that  which  is  new,  it 
gives  a  better  finish.  Any  raised  grain,  or  any  dirty  mark 
in  stained  work,  can  be  removed  by  means  of  glasspaper. 

Work  that  has  been  well  glasspapered  has,  at  the 
finish,  a  better  surface  than  can  be  otherwise  obtained. 
Dirt  is  thus  removed,  also  nibs  and  irregularities  which  no 
after-painting  will  conceal,  and  which  varnishing  only 
brings  into  relief.  Careless  glasspapering  of  a  door  may 
bring  it  into  a  condition  that  no  after-work  can  rectify, 
producing  unsightly  scratches  in  all  parts.  Glasspapering, 
however,  will  remove  surface  roughness  only  ;  it  will  not 
level  down. 

In  preparing  colour,  first  mix  a  small  portion  to  the  re¬ 
quired  tint  on  a  palette  board,  as  a  guide  to  making  the 
rest.  Begin  by  mixing  the  colour  required  in  oil,  and  when 
the  tint  has  been  attained,  add  the  thinnings,  then  strain 
all.  If  muslin  is  used,  damp  it  with  water  first,  but  with 
wire  strainers  this  precaution  is  not  necessary.  Wipe  off 
the  superfluous  colour  from  the  strainer  with  a  palette 
knife,  not  with  the  sash-tool  with  which  the  colour  has  ~ 
been  gently  pushed  through  the  strainer.  The  sash-tool 
employed  for  this  purpose  should  be  rinsed  out  in  turps  and 
wiped  on  a  rag  before  being  placed  in  the  strained  colour. 

To  cover  black,  or  any  dark  colour,  which  is  to  be  left 
lighter  at  the  finish,  begin  by  giving  a  coat  of  red,  orange 
red,  Venetian  red,  or  burnt  sienna  ;  a  cold  colour  will  cover 
and  look  well  over  this  preparation.  If  a  medium  colour 
is  w'anted,  mix  from  the  above  a  warm  amber  colour  ;  over 


14 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


this,  green  will  cover  in  two  coats.  Leather  colour,  or  any 
of  the  tones  mixed  with  white  and  the  ochres,  siennas,  or 
umbers,  will  then  cover  in  one  coat. 

As  a  rule,  the  method  to  adopt  in  laying  coats  of  colour 
is  to  alternate  the  coats — first  coat  oily,  second  coat  flat¬ 
fish,  and  so  on.  The  coats  work  and  combine  better  in 
this  way.  In  applying  the  first  coat,  an  endeavour  should 
be  made  to  bring  all  the  work  to  an  even  colour,  no  matter 
what  that  may  be.  The  next  thing  is  to  begin  a  gradual  ap¬ 
proach  to  the  colour  required  in  the  finishing  coat. 

Some  workers  adopt  a  system  such  as  this :  The  second 
coat  consists  of  one-third  turps  ;  the  third,  half  turps  and 
half  oil ;  the  fourth,  one-third  oil  and  two-thirds  turps. 
When  the  second  coat  is  dry  and  hard,  it  must  be  well 
rubbed  down  with  glasspaper,  and  examined  to  see 
whether  further  stopping  is  needed.  Whatever  the  colour 
be,  it  should  have  pureness  of  tone,  brightness  and  depth, 
and  body. 

White-lead  is  used  for  giving  body,  though  there  are 
colours  that  have  sufficient  body  of  themselves  without  the 
addition  of  white-lead.  Paint  should  also  possess  durabil¬ 
ity.  which  is  greatly  promoted  by  thorough  incorporation 
cf  the  materials.  The  second-coat  colour  is  intended  to 
level  up  not  only  the  surface  but  also  the  colour ;  the  next 
is  to  give  solidity  and  to  stop  unequal  suction.  The  final 
coats  should  give  a  finish  that  is  level  in  surface  and  in 
colour.  To  obtain  a  good  finish,  some  painters  thin  the 
second  coat  with  one-third  turpentine  and  two-thirds  raw 
linseed  oil.  The  second  and  third  coats  may  be  rounder, 
and  the  last  coat  thinner.  The  paint  should  be  well  rubbed 
out ;  it  is  a  mistake  to  make  paint  too  thick.  Not  a  large 
quantity  of  paint,  but  solidity  and  levelness,  should  be  the 
object.  The  third  coat,  mixed  with  half  and  half,  and 
rather  oily,  can  be  tinted  to  something  like  the  final  colour 
desired,  but  neutral,  and  slightly  darker. 

The  flattening  comes  last:  it  is  used  thin,  with  a  full 
brush,  and  must  be  quickly  laid  off  with  a  light  touch,  or 
stippled.  A  badger-hair  softener  is  better  for  doors  than 
the  ordinary  hog-hair  stippler,  as  it  produces  finer  stip¬ 
pling  ;  or  it  may  be  used  for  laying  off  the  colour.  A 
bastard  flat,  or  eggshell  gloss,  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
finish,  because  it  wears  better  than  a  flat.  A  bastard  flat 


OBJECTS,  PRINCIPLES,  AND  PROCESSES.  15 


may  be  made  of  one-third  oil  and  two-thirds  turpentine, 
and  may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  wax.  Shred  white 
wax  into  a  clean  gallipot ;  stand  the  gallipot  in  a  sauce¬ 
pan,  or  any  iron  receptacle,  and  surround  it  with  water ; 
subject  it  to  moderate  heat  till  the  wax  is  melted,  and  then 
add  to  the  paint.  Half  an  ounce  of  this  melted  wax  is 
sufficient  for  1  pt.  of  colour.  In  melting  the  wax,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  let  flame  get  to  it,  as  it  is  very  in¬ 
flammable.  Half  a  teaspoonful  of  varnish,  as  well  as  the 
wax,  should  be  added  to  the  flat.  When  two  coats  of  oil 
colour  are  specified,  defects  must  be  remedied,  the  work 
stopped,  and  the  surface  given  a  turpentine  second  colour 
and  finishing  oil  coat.  Second  colour,  when  mixed  flat, 
must  contain  a  certain  quantity  of  oil,  in  the  proportion, 
say,  of  3  parts  turps  to  1  part  raw  linseed  oil ;  |  part  of 
japanners’  gold-size  would  improve  the  colour.  Driers 
should  be  used  in  a  small  quantity,  regulated  by  the  cir¬ 
cumstances. 

For  new  work,  oil  second  colour  is  sometimes  employed 
with  less  turpentine  and  more  oil,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  ground,  and  oz.  of  driers  is  then  used  to  about 
10  lb.  or  lead.  For  old  work,  turps  second  colour  is  re¬ 
quired,  3  parts  turps  to  1  part  oil.  In  both  new  work  and 
old,  flat  second  colour  is  adopted  when  the  work  is  to  be 
finished  in  two  coats  of  oil  colour.  The  oil  ground-coat 
has  a  better  gloss  when  put  on  a  flat  ground. 

For  four  coats  and  a  flat,  the  first  coat  should  be  nearly 
all  oil,  mixed  very  thin,  and  be  allowed  three  or  four  days 
to  dry  ;  the  second  coat  should  be  two-thirds  raw  linseed 
oil  and  one-third  trupentine ;  the  next  coat,  two-thirds 
turpentine  and  one-third  linseed  oil ;  whilst  the  fourth  coat 
is  nearly  all  linseed  oil.  The  flat  finishing-coat  should  be 
made  up  of  turps  with  a  little  oil  or  varnish  to  bind  it. 
Each  coat  should  be  thoroughly  dry,  except  the  last  or  oil 
ground  for  the  flatting.  The  flatting  should  be  done  while 
the  ground  is  soft,  to  enable  it  to  sink  in.  The  ground  is 
usually  laid  one  day  and  the  flatting  the  next. 

In  two  coats  and  flat,  the  first  coat  is  similar  to  the 
turpentine  second  colour  described  above,  and  the  actual 
second  coat  or  ground  is  an  oil  coat,  the  finish  being  a  flat. 

To  mix  flatting,  bind  it  with  a  teaspoonful  of  either  oil 
or  varnish  (encaustic-  or  wax-varnish  is  preferable)  per 


16 


PR AC  TIG  AL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


half-gallon  of  colour.  Mix  it  the  day  before  use,  as  the 
turps  will  then  be  less  likely  to  lift  the  ground,  which,  for 
flatting,  should  be  an  oil,  comparatively  soft,  darker,  and 
more  neutral  than  the  flat,  so  that  the  flat  may  sink  in 
and  combine  .with  the  oil  coat.  The  ground  for  flatting 
may  consist  principally  of  oil  colour,  a  small  quantity  of 
turps  being  employed  to  give  it  fluidity  and  make  it  settle 
down  better. 

When  work  is  finished  in  oil  colour  with  a  gloss,  it  is 
usual  to  mix  a  little  turps  with  it  to  harden  the  surface. 
Oil  is  the  life  of  paint,  but  turps  makes  the  ingredients  mix 
better,  prevents  the  colour  running,  and  helps  hardening. 
When  four  coats  are  specified,  to  be  finished  in  oil,  it 
means,  second-colour  oil,  third-colour  turps,  fourth-colour 
oil  finish. 

Distemper  (water  colour  bound  with  size)  requires  to  be 
laid  on  by  short  strokes  in  all  directions,  which  is  best 
done  with  a  two-knot  brush.  When  the  unequal  suction  of 
the  ground  is  corrected  by  clearcole,  one  coat  of  distemper 
is  all  that  is  needed  ;  but  a  second  coat  requires  that  the 
first  one  should  be  sized  down  to  bind  it ;  a  double  coat, 
however,  is  seldom  satisfactory. 

Special  precautions  must  be  taken  by  the  painter  to 
avoid  lead-poisoning.  Care  should  be  taken  to  wash  the 
hands  frequently  in  a  strong  decoction  of  oak  bark.  A 
painter  should  keep  his  hair  and  beard  short,  and  wear  a 
cap  while  at  work.  He  should  always  wear  a  blouse  and 
overalls  when  at  work,  so  that  he  can  remove  the  paint 
when  not  at  work.  Before  eating  he  should  rinse  his 
mouth  with  cold  water.  He  should  eat  fat  and  drink  milk. 
Acidulated  drinks  are  beneficial,  but  spirits  are  injurious. 
Citric  acid  or  acetic  acid  (vinegar)  in  water  is  a  good  drink. 
Drinks  made  from  lemons  counteract  the  effect  of  lead. 
A  small  portion  of  salad  oil  the  last  thing  at  night,  as  much 
as  can  be  digested,  should  be  taken,  when  using  lead.  He 
should  at  once  consult  a  doctor  if  he  finds  that  his  bowels 
are  not  acting  properly,  or  if  he  has  pains  in  the  inside. 


17 


CHAPTER  II. 

painters’  tools  and  appliances. 

The  paint  shop  should  be  on  the  ground  floor,  and 
should  be  large — say  24  ft.  by  14  ft. — well  lighted  from  the 
north,  with  proper  provision  for  artificial  lighting ;  it 
must  be  dry,  dustproof,  and  provided  with  a  well-guarded 
fireplace  or  shut-in  stove  capable  of  heating  a  3-gal. 
bucket;  it  must  also  possess  a  water  supply  with  sink 
and  waste.  The  walls,  whether  of  board  or  brick,  should 
be  painted  white  to  assist  the  light. 

The  shop  should  be  furnished  with  mixing  benches, 
having  drawers  in  which  to  keep  cotton  waste,  rags,  tools, 
etc.  ;  and  with  paint  stones  (slabs  of  flawless  marble 
about  2  ft.  square  and  in.  thick),  a  muller  for  grinding, 
palette  knives,  straining  muslin,  shears,  corkscrew,  cask- 
opener,  case-opener,  and  pumice-stone.  The  shop  should  be 
fitted  with  such  shelves  and  cupboards  as  may  be  re¬ 
quired,  and  with  bins  to  hold  whiting,  plaster,  etc. 

Other  requirements  or  conveniences  are — scales  and 
weighing  machine,  paint  mill,  large  oil  tank  with  taps,  a 
pickle  tub  containing  a  potash  solution  in  which  to  clean 
pots  and  pans,  smudge  and  refuse  kegs,  a  large  flour 
barrel,  spouting  cans  for  mixing  paints,  smutch  cans  for 
cleaning  brushes,  baskets,  etc.  Small  paint  mills,  for 
grinding  the  pigment  to  a  very  fine  powder  for  the  use  of 
coachbuilders  and  decorators,  are  now  so  cheap  (ranging 
in  price  from  £2  to  £10)  that  they  are  no  longer  regarded 
as  a  luxury,  but  as  a  regular  adjunct  to  the  plant  of  every 
well-equipped  paint  shop. 

The  painting  room,  which  should  be  similar  in  shape  to 
the  paint  shop,  but  larger,  should  contain  portable  benches 
formed  of  three-legged  trestles  and  boards,  as  well  as  a 
fixed  bench  well  supplied  with  drawers  ;  paint  slab,  muller 
and  knives,  sign-writer’s  easels,  shelves,  cupboards,  and 
a  heating  stove.  In  the  store  room,  which  should  adjoin 
the  paint  shop,  small  articles,  such  as  sash  tools,  stencil 

B 


18 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


tools,  sponges,  and  leathers,  may  be  kept  in  drawers ; 
brushes,  dusters,  limers,  and  distemper  brushes  should, 
together  with  new  cans,  kettles,  and  buckets,  be  hung  from 
galvanised  hooks  fixed  in  the  ceiling. 

Ladders  of  various  lengths  are  required,  those  most 
generally  used  being  from  twenty-four  to  forty  rounds 
long ;  whilst  the  handiest  sizes  of  trestles  or  hinged  double 
ladders  are  from  8  ft.  to  10  ft.  “  Steps  ”  also  are  neces¬ 
sary.  Window  or  gallows  brackets,  otherwise  known  as 
portable  balconies  (Figs.  1  and  2)  are  useful.  In  Figs. 
1  and  2,  c  is  the  abutment  piece  which  goes  close  to  the  out¬ 
side  wall,  n  the  position  of  a  piece  of  packing  placed  on 


the  sill,  and  A  two  pins  put  through  the  most  convenient 
of  the  holes  B.  This  was  formerly  a  much  used  arrange¬ 
ment,  but  it  is  not  so  safe  as  it  should  be. 

The  travelling  cradle  patented  by  Mr.  Edwin  Palmer  is 
now  in  general  use  for  enabling  workmen  to  be  raised  or 
lowered  to  places  to  which  it  would  be  inconvenient  or 
impossible  to  fix  ladders,  or  where  excessively  long  ladder's 
would  be  required,  or,  again,  where  the  large  surface  to  be 
dealt  with  would  necessitate  continual  shifting  of  the 
ladder.  The  Palmer  light  cradle  or  boat  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  means  of  the  ordinary  tackle,  the  head'blocks 
of  which  run  along  a  wire  rope  or  cable,  by  the  aid  of  guy 
lines,  carrying  the  cradle  to  any  part  of  the  structure 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


19 


where  its  presence  is  desired,  the  shifting  of  position  being 
carried  out  by  the  occupant  of  the  cradle  without  assist¬ 
ance.  The  cradle  is  about  one-eighth  of  the  weight  of  an 
ordinary  20-ft.  boat,  and  will  reach  twice  as  far.  It  can 
be  used  not  only  wherever  cradle  work  is  practicable,  but 


in  many  cases  in  which  ordinary  cradles  or  ladders  would 
be  impossible.  The  wire  head-rope  is  tested  up  to  8  tons, 
whilst  its  usual  burden  with  two  men  in  it  is  less  than  4  cwt. 
The  apparatus  is  equally  well  adapted  for  inside  and  outside 
work. 

The  ordinary  painter’s  boat  (largely  superseded  by 
the  Palmer  cradle  described  above)  is  rather  dangerous,  but 
is  still  frequently  used.  It  is  quite  independent  of  the  pave- 


PRACTICAL  PAIN  TLBS’  WORK. 


20 


ment,  but  great  care  is  needed  in  its  management.  To 
support  it,  a  few  slates  may  be  removed,  and  the  stays  of 
the  boat  securely  screwed  and  fastened  to  the  rafters  of 
the  roof  ;  if  this  is  not  done,  heavy  weights  and  a  long 
leverage  must  be  used  (see  Fig.  3).  The  boat  should  be 
worked  from  the  roof,  and  double  sheave-blocks  should  be 
employed  (see  Figs.  4  and  5).  A  labourer  should  be 
stationed  at  each  rope,  in  order  to  raise  and  lower  the 


Fig.  5. — Double  Sheave-blocks  for  Painter’s  Boat. 

boat.  If  the  painters  are  themselves  allowed  to  lift  the 
boat,  there  is  danger  to  life  and  limb.  Sufficient  weight 
and  leverage  should  be  given  to  counteract  the  weight  of 
the  men  and  the  boat. 

Another  way  of  building  a  scaffold  on  a  stucco  front  is 
by  means  of  cross  poles  and  struts  from  the  windows, 
but  in  this  case  the  tubs  of  earth  to  hold  the  upright  poles 
on  the  pavement  would  -cause  much  annoyance  in  a 
crowded  thoroughfare. 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


21 


Dust-cloths  or  drop  sheets,  of  coarse  unbleached  stuff, 
in  5  yd.  lengths,  2^  yd.  wide  ;  narrower  cloths  (say  1  yd. 
wide)  for  stairs  and  passages,  and  small  (1  yd.  by  1-g  yd.) 
cloth  for  the  protection  of  fittings,  etc.,  with  others  of 
sufficiently  varied  sizes  to  meet  all  contingencies,  should 
be  plentifully  stocked.  They  should  be  of  sufficiently 
close  texture  to  be  drop-proof,  and  should  always  be  tidy, 
in  order  to  inspire  confidence  in  the  householder  and  his 
lady,  who  are  naturally  anxious  for  the  protection  of  their 
belongings. 

The  trade  catalogues  contain  clearly  illustrated  descrip¬ 
tions  of  the  articles  necessary  to  the  painter’s  plant,  such 
as  pails  or  buckets  for  distemper,  washing  off,  etc.  ;  gal¬ 
vanised  or  tinned  paint  kettles  (ranging  in  diameter  from 
41  in.  =  1  pt.  to  9  in.  —  10  pt.) ;  thumb  pots  of  glazed  ware 
or  zinc  for  distemper,  etc.  ;  stock  drums  or  kegs,  portable 


Fig.  6.  *'11 _ i 

Figs.  G  and  7. — Paint  Strainer  and  its  Parts. 


pinewood  mixing  boards  (f  in.  thick  and  12  in.  by  9  in.,  or 
15  in.  by  10  in.)  ;  graining  and  marbling  tools,  chamois 
leathers,  etc. 

The  best  method  of  cleaning  paint  and  varnish  cans  and 
bottles  is  to  place  i  lb.  of  caustic  soda  with  10  gal.  of 
water  in  a  copper  or  other  suitable  vessel,  and  heat  the 
water  until  the  soda  is  dissolved.  Fill  the  bottles,  and  al¬ 
low  them  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  copper,  then  on 
these  place  the  paint-  cans  ;  cover  with  a  suitable  lid,  and 
boil  for  about  fifty  minutes.  They  should  then  be  taken 
out  and  washed  in  cold  water,  when  all  traces  of  the  paint 
and  varnish  will  disappear.  This  method  is  adopted  in 
paint  and  varnish  works  where  steam  instead  of  fire  is 
used  for  boiling.  Old  paintpots  are  commonly  burnt  out, 
but  the  greatest  care  is  necessary. 

Paint  strainers  of  various  patterns  are  available.  In 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORE. 


the  form  shown  by  Fig.  6,  the  metal  body  a  (Fig.  7) 
has  an  .easily  replaceable  copper  wire  gauze  strainer  d, 
this  being  held  in  place  by  the  compression  band  c  and  the 
clips  b.  The  strainer  shown  in  Fig.  8  is  made  by  C.  H. 
Davis  &  Co.,  of  Birmingham;  the  actual  strainer  is  of 
muslin  or  coarse  cloth,  and  is  supported  by  a  perforated 
plate  contained  in  the  hinged  band.  This  is  a  good  pattern 
for  use  in  working  paint  through,  with  a  brush.  The 
simplest  of  all  strainers  is  the  box  (Fig.  9),  12  in.  square 
by  4  in.  deep,  having  a  piece  of  coarse  canvas  secured 
to  it  with  string  or  tacks  in  the  manner  shown. 

Blow-lamps,  burning-off,  brazing,  or  spirit  lamps,  for 
removing  old  paint,  are  of  very  various  patterns,  which 
will  be  found  fully  illustrated  in  the  trade  catalogues. 
Charcoal  braziers  are  still  in  favour  where  very  large  flat 
surfaces  are  to  be  dealt  with. 

Brushes  are  the  most  important  tools  used  by  the 
painter.  A  badly  selected,  badly  used,  and  uncared-for 
brush  will,  even  in  skilled  hands,  prevent  good  work.  The 
best  brush  for  general  house  painting  is  made  entirely 
of  the  best  hog  bristles.  Bristles  vary  in  quality,  and  are 
carefully  selected  for  particular  kinds  of  brushes.  Cheaper 
materials,  such  as  the  hair  of  various  animals  (particularly 
horsehair),  and  various  fibres,  have  been  tried,  either  to 
adulterate  or  to  supersede  the  wild-hog-bristle  brush,  but 
such  substitutes,  though  cheaper  at  first,  are  found  to 
cause  loss  of  time,  waste  of  material,  rapid  wear,  and  bad 
work.  The  longer  the  bristles,  the  more  expensive  are 
the  brushes,  but  short  bristles  wear  into  stumps  much 
more  quickly.  Cheap  brushes  have  softer  bristles.  The 
best  bristles  for  brushmaking  are  from  the  stiff  and  long 
hairs  of  the  wild  hog,  and  are  obtained  chiefly  from 
Poland,  Germany,  Siberia,  and  Russia,  but  some  are  im¬ 
ported  from  China  and  Japan.  The  bristles  in  the 
domestic  hog  are  not  serviceable  for  brushes,  being,  as  a 
rule,  too  short  and  lacking  elasticity. 

When  choosing  a  brush,  pinch  the  hairs  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  scant  of 
hair  at  the  heart ;  if  it  is  lacking  in  this  respect  it  will 
feel  empty.  Then  press  the  hair  out  level,  and  notice 
whether  it  has  a  good  chisel-edge.  See  that  all  the  hairs 
are  straight  and  equal  in  length.  To  detect  fibre,  take  a 


PAINTERS’  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


23 

small  number  of  hairs,  bend  them  over,  and  suddenly  re¬ 
lease  them.  If  the  bristles  are  good,  they  will  quickly  fly 
back  to  their  original  position,  but  fibre  will  remain  more 
or  less  bent.  But  the  only  sure  test  of  the  quality  of  a 
brush  is  in  the  use  of  it,  and  it  is  wise  to  buy  only  of  a 
good  maker.  Brushes  should  have  a  perfectly  square 
bevelled  edge  ;  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  of 
these  edges. 

Of  hog-hair  brushes  the  pound  brush  is  perhaps  the 
most  useful ;  it  can  be  had  in  several  sizes  and  shapes — 
round,  oval,  or  flattened  at  the  sides. 

The  hairs  of  a  brush  taper  and  incline  naturally ;  that 
is  to  say,  they  fall  over,  and  are  not  perfectly  straight. 
In  making  the  brush,  the  hairs  are  selected  and  arranged 
so  as  to  incline  together.  It  is  therefore  very  necessary, 


pig.  g. — Davis’s  Paint  Strainer.  Fig.  it. — Square  Strainer  or  Sieve. 

in  using,  washing,  and  storing  brushes,  not  to  interfere 
with  this  arrangement,  or  the  brush  will  be  spoilt.  They 
should  always  be  stroked  from  the  stock  towards  the  ends 
of  the  brush,  and  never  violently  rubbed  on  a  flat  sur¬ 
face  to  get  the  paint  out  of  the  heart  of  the  brush.  It 
would  be  better  to  use  a  powerful  solvent  such  as  paraffin 
or  benzine. 

Brushes  should  not  stand  on  the  bottom  of  the  can  on 
their  edge  even  for  a  few  minutes  ;  they  should  be  sus¬ 
pended  with  their  edges  about  an  inch  from  the  bottom. 
Brushes,  especially  varnish  brushes,  are  best  kept  in  an 
air-tight  tin  box ;  if  kept  in  varnish  they  should  not  be 
deeply  immersed.  A  hole  bored  in  the  handle,  through 
which  a  wire  is  passed,  will  serve  to  keep  the  brush  sus¬ 
pended  in  the  liquid  (see  Fig.  10). 


24  PLUG  TIC AL  PAINTERS’  WOILK. 

A  new  brush  sometimes  sheds  its  bristles.  If  the  brush 
is  gently  knocked  against  the  edge  of  a  board,  or  brushed 
against  a  rough  board,  any  loose  bristles  which  have  been 
insecurely  fastened  in  the  manufacture  of  the  brush  will 
come  out;  but,  of  course,  the  knocking  will  not  prevent 
a  bad  brush  from  coming  to  pieces.  A  brush,  even  when 
new,  is  apt  to  be  dirty  from  storage.  Before  use  it  should 
be  washed,  tried, and  then  well  shaken  and  manipulated  in 
the  paint ;  or,  when  varnish  is  to  be  used,  the  brush  should 
be  worked  in  a  portion  of  the  varnish  and  scraped  out 
with  the  palette  knife  until  no  specks  are  to  be  seen. 

To  tie  up  a  brush,  take  a  piece  of  strong  stout  string, 
hold  it  with  the  thumb  against  the  stock  of  the  brush, 


Fig.  lo. — Suspending  Brushes  in  Oil. 


leaving  about  7  in.  loose  at  one  end  of  the  string,  bring 
the  other  end  round  the  brush,  and  tie  the  first  round  of 
cord  near  the  stock.  The  7-in.  end  may  now  be  made  to 
lie  along  the  fibres  of  the  brush,  and  the  other  end  may 
be  wound  round  again  and  again  as  high  as  it  is  re¬ 
quired  to  go.  Then  the  twine  that  has  been  laid  along  the 
fibre  and  round  it  should  be  bent  back  and  tucked  into  the 
stock  and  drawn  tight,  and  a  half-knot  made  opposite  the 
first  one.  Both  ends  of  the  string  may  now  be  tacked  to 
the  handle  of  the  brush,  and  the  extra  string  cut  off.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  pull  the  string  too  tight,  for  when 
any  moisture  gets  to  the  hairs  the  brush  will  swell ;  and 
the  thickness  of  the  string  should  correspond  to  the  size 
of  the  brush. 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


Another  way  to  tie  up  a  brush  to  be  used  in  paint  is  as 
follows :  Double  the  string,  holding  the  loop  thus  made 
with  the  left-hand  thumb.  Then  bind  the  string  round  and 
round  the  bristles  as  high  as  needed,  and  pass  the  right- 
hand  string  through  the  loop,  and  pull  the  loop  down 
behind  the  string  which  has  already  been  wound  round 
the  bristles.  They  can  then  be  tied  together,  and  no 
further  fastening  is  needed  ;  but  the  string  tied  in  this  way 
is  liable  to  slip.  Still  another  way  to  tie  up  a  brush  is 
first  to  tie  one  round  of  the  string  (Fig.  11),  leaving  about 
7  in.  lying  along  the  hairs  (a,  Fig.  12).  Now  wind  up  the 
string  b  round  the  bristles  as  high  as  desired.  Then 
double  the  winding  string  b  back  to  form  a  loop  (Fig.  13) 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  brush  to  the  string  a  lying  along 


Figs.  11  and  12. — Tying  up  Paint  Brush. 


the  hairs.  Slip  the  end  of  the  winding  string  b  through 
the  loop  (Fig.  13)  forming  the  knot  (Fig.  14),  and,  pulling 
both  strings  down  the  stock  to  the  handle,  fasten  them  to 
the  stock  of  the  brush  with  small  brass-headed  nails  or 
tacks ;  then  cut  away  the  excess  of  string. 

Every  painter  likes  to  “wear  in”  his  own  brushes;  he 
thus  gets  used  to  certain  brushes,  and  the  brushes  become 
adapted  to  his  method  of  using  them.  Each  man  should 
have  a  locker  in  the  paint  shop  in  which  to  keep  his 
brushes  when  not  in  use.  When  the  man  is  engaged, 
he  should  give  a  receipt  for  his  kit  of  tools,  the  receipt 
to  be  returned  to  him  on  his  discharge.  All  the  brushes 
should  be  so  marked  that  if  one  should  be  missing  the  fact 
could  be  at  once  reported.  It  is  usual  on  large  jobs  for  the 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORE. 


26 

foreman  or  his  assistant  to  take  charge  of  the  brushes  at 
night  and  give  them  out  each  morning.  Each  man  then 
gets  his  own  brush,  and  as  they  are  all  tallied  there  can 
be  no  dispute. 

Brushes  should  not  be  kept  in  a  hot  place  such  as  near 
steam  pipes  or  stoves,  because  the  handles  are  liable  to 
shrink  and  the  hairs  to  come  out.  A  damp  place  is  just 
as  objectionable,  although,  if  the  handle  of  a  brush  has 
shrunk  from  having  been  kept  in  a  hot  place,  to  keep  it 
in  a  damp  place  for  a  while  may  perhaps  restore  it. 

Yarnish  brushes  should  not  be  kept  in  water,  especially 
those  set  in  glue  and  string.  They  should  be  kept  in  oil 
or  varnish,  and  in  an  air-tight  box.  Even  when  they  are 


Fig.  14. 


Figs.  13  and  14. — Tying  up  Paint  Brush. 

kept  in  varnish,  the  varnish  is  apt  to  dry  in  the  stock,  and 
afterwards  to  break  away,  when  the  brush  is  in  use,  and 
make  the  varnish  gritty.  When  a  varnish  brush  is  kept  in 
oil,  care  should  be  taken  to  let  the  oil  be  a  little  way  over 
the  stock,  but  the  oil  must  be  thoroughly  scraped  out  be¬ 
fore  putting  the  brush  in  varnish.  A  rinse  in  turpentine 
may  be  given,  and  a  little  time  should  be  allowed  before 
using  the  brush,  so  that  the  oil  and  the  turps  shall  not  get 
into  the  varnish. 

Some  painters  keep  their  brashes  in  a  mixture  of  3 
parts  raw  oil  to  1  part  turpentine.  But  turpentine  makes 
the  bristles  harsh,  and  divides  the  hairs  so  that  they  will 
not  lie  together.  All  brushes  absorb  moisture.  It  is  cus- 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


27 


tomary  to  put  new  brushes  in  water  over-night  in  order 
to  swell  the  hairs,  and  so  prevent  them  from  coming  out ; 
they  ought  to  be  quite  dry  before  use.  If  water  is  in  the 
hair  when  the  brush  is  put  in  the  paint,  it  will  prove  in¬ 
jurious.  Another  objection  is  that  the  water  weakens  the 
bristles.  It  is  far  better  to  soak  brushes  in  oil.  Brushes 
after  being  used  for  japan  black  should  be  kept  in  raw 
linseed  oil,  should  be  occasionally  rinsed  in  paraffin,  and 
finally  be  washed  out  in  warm  but  not  hot  water. 

When  ordinary  paint  brushes  are  kept  too  long  in  either 
,  oil  or  water,  the  bristles  are  apt  to  lose  their  spring.  They 
are  also  liable  to  the  danger  of  the  paint  or  varnish  drying 
in  the  stock  of  the  brush  on  account  of  evaporation.  They 
should  occasionally  be  washed  in  turpentine  or  paraffin, 
and  then  given  a  slight  rinse  in  either  of  these  solvents, 
and  a  finishing  wash  in  soap-and-water,  being  finally  al¬ 
lowed  to  dry  before  being  brought  into  use  again. 

When  string-bound  brushes  are  kept  in  water,  the 
string  easily  rots.  To  prevent  this,  give  the  string  a 
couple  of  coats  of  knotting  or  resin  varnish  before  using 
the  brushes. 

Let  the  brushes  lie  in  oil  to  soften  the  hairs,  and  wash 
them  out  occasionally,  so  that  they  may  not  get  too  soft. 
Brushes  are  injured  and  destroyed  by  frequent  use  in  hot 
alkaline  solutions,  hot  soda  water,  and  hot  lime- 
wash.  They  are  also  injured  by  damp.  Portions  of 
colour,  and  even  size,  paste,  or  stale  beer,  rot  brushes,  so 
that  in  all  cases  a  frequent  thorough  washing  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  in  good  condition.  If,  from  being  left  in  a 
dry  condition  for  too  long  a  time,  or  from  being  stored 
in  too  hot  a  place,  the  hairs  of  the  brash  get  loose,  drive 
a  small  wooden  wedge  between  the  handle  and  the  bristles  ; 
this  will  effectually  tighten  them.  If  a  brush  has  got 
hard  in  the  paint,  soak  it  in  paraffin  oil  till  the  paint  is 
softened,  and  finish  by  cleaning  with  soap-and-water  ;  a 
very  little  soda  may  also  be  used. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  clean  a  brush  than  to  dip 
it  into  turpentine  contained  in  a  clean  pot,  and  scrape 
tne  colour  out  with  a  knife,  repeating  this  until  the  paint 
is  all  cleaned  out  of  the  brush.  Soap-and-water  will  com¬ 
plete  the  cleaning.  Although  soft-haired  brushes  are 
sometimes  kept  in  oil,  they  should  not  be  left  in  it  too 


28 


PR  A  0  TIG  A  L  PA  INTERS’  WORK. 


long,  as  the  oil  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the  hair ;  and 
they  should  not  be  cleansed  with  soda.  If  such  brushes 
are  left  out  of  colour  too  long,  they  get  harsh ;  if  left 
too  long  in  oil,  they  get  too  soft.  Alternate  treatment 
keeps  them  in  a  good  condition. 

Camel-hair  and  sable  brushes,  as  well  as  the  various 
substitutes  for  sable  that  are  used  by  painters,  are 


Figs.  15  to  17. — Stipplers 


cleansed  in  paraffin  oil  or  turpentine.  They  are  never 
left  in  the  paint,  but  sometimes  are  kept  over-night  in 
a  flat  dish  and  covered  with  oil.  If  they  are  kept  for  a 
long  time  unused,  work  some  tallow  into  the  hairs  after 
washing  them  out ;  when  the  brushes  are  wanted  for  use 
the  tallow  must  be  well  washed  out  with  spirits. 

All  brushes  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry,  airy  place, 
and  should  always  be  put  away  moderately  dry.  Moths 
should  be  guarded  against,  because  they  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  ends  of  the  hair ;  the  eggs  can  be  removed  by 


Fig.  18. — Dusting  Brush. 


brushing  them  away,  but  the  moth  can  be  kept  away  alto¬ 
gether  by  the  use  of  camphor,  insect  powder,  or  naphtha¬ 
lene. 

Old  brushes  of  all  sorts  are  always  useful  as  scrubs. 
For  limewhiting,  use  fibre  brushes,  and  immediately  after 
use,  rinse  out  all  the  lime  from  the  brush,  as  otherwise  it 
burns  the  fibre. 


PAINTERS’  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


29 


Every  brush  is  the  better  for  a  metal  ferrule,  fastened 
with  a  catch  or  nails.  These  resist  the  action  of  water  and 
spirit.  Should  any  hairs  be  turned  at  the  point,  they  can 
be  straightened  by  dipping  them  into  boiling  water  quite 


Fig.  19. — Dusting  Brush. 


straight  up  and  down.  Ironing  them  with  a  hot  iron  is 
sometimes  effectual. 

Small  brushes  should  not  be  used  to  do  work  which  a 
larger  brush  will  do.  Small  economies  at  first  mean  a 
great  saving  at  the  finish. 

Stipplers  must  be  thoroughly  washed  in  soap  and  warm 
water  immediately  after  use,  as  also  should  badger-hair 
brushes,  used  for  levelling  paint  and  for  fine  stippling. 
The  stipplers  should  be  washed  without  wetting  the  wood, 
for  fear  of  warping  it,  and  should  be  finally  rinsed  with 
water  and  beaten  on  a  dry  cloth  to  remove  the  moisture. 
Stipplers  (see  Figs.  15  to  17)  are  used  effectively  for  re¬ 
moving  any  brush  marks  that  may  occur  in  painting,  and 


Fig.  20. — Dusting  Brush. 

to  ensure  a  level,  even  coat  of  colour.  They  have  a  per¬ 
fectly  fiat  and  regular  surface  of  hair,  and  produce  an  even¬ 
ness  of  colour  not  otherwise  obtainable.  A  well-laid  coat 
of  paint  does  not  require  a  stippler,  but  it  is  necessary  for 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


30 

large  flanks  of  thin  flatting  colour  on  walls,  and  it  is  of. 
value  even  in  distempering.  The  shape  of  handle  used  is 
a  matter  of  individual  choice.  The  hairs  of  a  stippler 
should  be  kept  perfectly  straight,  and  only  a  light  sharp 
tap  given  in  using  it;  never  strike  it  so  hard  as  to  bend 
the  hairs. 


Fig.  21. — One-knot  Ground  Brush. 


The  brushes  known  as  dusters  (see  Figs.  18  to  20) 
are  made  so  that  the  hairs  spread  out,  and  cannot  be  used 
for  painting.  A  worn-down  duster  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  out,  and  will  then  do  for  rough  work ;  but  it  is 
not  suitable  for  special  work,  as  a  certain  amount  of  dust 
and  dirt  always  gets  into  the  stock,  impairing  the  elasticity 
of  the  brush.  In  every  case  the  stock  of  the  brush  should 
be  kept  clean,  or  it  will  lose  its  spring,  and  the  dirt, 
too,  is  liable  to  work  down  into  the  paint.  The  hairs  of 
a  dusting  brush  are  apt  to  fall  out  either  through  the 
shrinkage  of  the  hairs  or  by  the  perishing  of  the  cement 
which  originally  bound  the  hairs  together.  To  repair  it, 
remove  the  ferrule  and  handle,  and  replace  the  hair  which 
has  come  away,  putting  the  butt  ends  of  the  hair  together, 
then  dipping  the  end  in  hot  pitch  or  glue  to  the  depth  of 
\  in .,,  allowing  the  binding  substance  to  enter  between  the 


Fig.  22. — One-knot  Ground  Brush. 


hair  ends.  Then  take  a  piece  of  thin  wire  about  1  ft. 
long,  tie  up  the  bunch  of  hair  at  the  baseband  dip  it  again 
in  the  hot  binding  pitch  or  glue.  Now  fasten  on  the  fer¬ 
rule,  and  then  drive  in  the  wedge  end  of  the  brush  handle, 
using  a  vice  for  this  operation.  Finally  force  in  the  round 
piece  of  wood  which  serves  as  a  base  to  the  hairs. 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


31 


One-knot  ground  brushes  (see  Figs.  21  and  22)  if  used 
in  varnish  or  as  dusters,  soon  become  loose  in  the  hair. 
Some  painters  use  them  as  dusters  to  soften  them  for  use 
in  paint ;  but  this  practice  is  not  recommended,  as  it  tends 
to  break  and  loosen  the  hair.  Ordinary  one-knot  ground 


Fig.  23. — Flat  Varnish  Brush. 

brushes  are  often  used  for  varnish,  for  which,  however, 
they  are  unsuitable ;  there  is  a  special  quality  for  that 
purpose. 

Flat  varnish  brushes  (Figs.  23  and  24),  made  in  metal 
cases,  are  mostly  cemented  with  glue,  and  therefore 
should  not  be  soaked  in  water  before  use.  If  properly 


Fig.  24. — Flat  Varnish  Brush  Brush. 


made,  they  can  be  used  at  once.  Flat  brushes  are  suitable 
for  panels  and  stiles  ;  and  round  brushes  (Fig.  25)  for  broad 
spaces  and  general  varnishing.  Ordinary  pound  brushes 
taken  for  varnishing  should  first  be  used  in  paint.  Proper 
varnish  brushes  are  made  more  carefully,  and  have  finer 
hairs  than  those  made  for  ordinary  painting.  Large 


Fig.  25. — Round  Varnish  Brush. 


brushes  made  from  camel-hair,  badger-hair,  bear-hair,  and 
goat-hair  are  in  some  cases  as  satisfactory  as  hog-hair 
brushes  for  varnishing. 

The  large  long-haired  springing  distemper  brushes  re¬ 
quire  specially  careful  treatment.  They  should  always  be 


32 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


thoroughly  washed  out  after  use,  as  the  distemper  affects 
the  hair.  A  little  soap  and  hot  water  is  necessary  to  wash 
out  Duresco.  After  washing,  the  hairs  should  be  straight¬ 
ened  by  putting  the  brushes  against  each  other  and  against 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  hairs  can  then  be  laid  carefully 


Fig.  20. — Distemper  Brush  with  Copper  Band. 


on  top  of  each  other.  Then  place  the  brushes  where  the 
hair  is  not  likely  to  be  disturbed ;  but  they  should  be  put 
into  water  occasionally,  lest  they  get  too  dry. 

Distemper  brushes  must  not  be  used  for  scrubbing 
off  old  distemper ;  only  a  worn-out  brush,  or  a  fibre  brush, 
should  be  employed  for  such  rough  work. 

In  a  wire  stock  distemper  brush  the  bristles  will  be 
found  sometimes  to  get  loose.  Before  use,  the  bristles  are 
held  tight  against  the  stock  by  the  wire.  When  soaked 
and  in  use,  the  bristles  and  wood,  being  porous,  swell  with 
water  and  push  the  wire  out.  Then,  when  the  brush  gets 
dry  or  partly  dry  again,  the  great  quantity  of  moisture 


absorbed  by  the  wood  and  the  bristles  evaporates,  the 
bristles  contract  and  the  wire  does  not,  and  so  the  bristles 
get  loose.  Copper-bound  and  tin-bound  distemper 
brushes,  which  are  not  subject  to  this  failing,  are  obtain¬ 
able  (see  Figs.  26  to  28). 


PAINTERS’  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


33 


Brushes  used  for  stencilling  are  generally  of  hog-hair, 
and  are  made  in  great  variety.  They  should  be  cleansed 
in  the  same  way  as  those  mentioned  above.  They  are 
apt  to  get  knocked  up  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  face  of 
the  brush,  instead  of  being  level,  becomes  concave.  .  A 


Fig.  28. — Fiat  Distemper  Brush  with  Copper  Band. 

good  stencil  brush  can  be  made  by  tying  up  a  sash-tool 
to  the  short  length  necessary  for  stencilling ;  such  a  tool 
is  less  liable  to  knock  up. 

Grainers’  tools  (fully  illustrated  in  the  companion 
volume,  “Practical  Graining  and  Marbling”)  should  be 
always  washed  after  use,  and  dried  in  order  to  avoid 
mildew,  which  occurs  from  keeping  damp  brushes  lying 
close  together  in  a  basket  or  bag,  so  that  the  air  does  not 
circulate  through  them. 

The  great  variety  of  smaller  brushes  in  use — sash-tools 
(Figi  29),  running  from  No.  1  to  No.  12,  fitches  of  all 
sizes,  flat  and  round — require  the  same  careful  treatment 
as  the  larger  brushes.  Take  care  not  to  remove  the  hairs 
from  their  proper  direction,  either  in  use  or  in  cleaning. 
There  are  bevel-edged  sash-tools  and  flat  fitches  for  all 
purposes.  A  very  useful  tool  for  painting  sashes  is  a  flat 


Fig-.  29. — String-bound  Sash  Tool. 


brush,  with  its  hair  cut  on  a  slant  similar  to  French  lining 
fitches.  A  well-worn  flat  fitch  will  often  make  an  excellent 
brush  for  running  lines. 

A  well-made  camel-hair  brush  is  often  as  good  as  a 
black  sable.  Ox-hair  and'  lion-hair  brushes  are  sold  as 
c 


34 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


being  cheaper  and  stronger  than  camel-hair,  but  nothing 
has  the  strength  and  spring  of  a  red  sable. 

A  great  variety  of  small  brushes  useful  to  the  decor¬ 
ator  are,  although  made  in  metal  as  well  as  quill,  called 
from  the  naine  of  the  quill.  They  consist  of  the  miniature, 
the  crowquill  (Fig.  30),  the  duck  (Fig.  31),  the  goose  (Fig. 
32),  the  full  goose,  the  extra-full  goose,  the  small  swan 
(Fig.  33),  middle  swan  and  large  swan.  Besides  these, 
there  are  the  short-haired  brushes  used  for  ornamental 
painting.  Then  there  are  the  various  sizes  of  writers’ 
brushes,  which  are  long  in  the  hair ;  and,  lastly,  the  over¬ 
graining  brushes  and  the  brushes  used  for  marbling.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  give  particulars  of  every  brush  employed 


Fig.  33. — Swan. 


in  painting ;  space  being  so  valuable  here,  it  has  been 
thought  better  to  refer  readers  to  the  many  trade  cata¬ 
logues  for  illustrations  of  the  great  variety  of  brushes  in 
use. 

Several  knives  are  necessary.  The  palette  knife  (Fig. 
34),  which  is  long,  flexible,  blunt,  and  round  at  the  top, 
is  used  for  rubbing  up  colour  on  the  painter’s  palette  ;  the 
flat  part  spreads  and  rubs  and  mixes  the  colour,  whilst 
the  long  thin  blunt  edge  scrapes  the  colour  together.  In 
using  this  knife,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  quickest 
way  to  mix  colour  is  to  do  a  small  portion  at  a  time,  as  a 
large  quantity  is  more  likely  to  be  imperfectly  mixed. 

A  piece  of  stout  glass  is  very  handy  for  mixing  colour 


PAINTERS’  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


35 


on.  Colour  is  now  so  perfectly  ground  at  the  mill  that  it 
very  seldom  requires  grinding  on  a  stone  or  muller. 

A  painter’s  palette  board,  from  which  it  is  easy  to 
scrape  off  the  colour  into  the  pot,  is  made  in  the  same 


Fig.  34. — Palette  Knife. 


way  as  a  putty  board,  but  is  larger.  A  handy  size  is  1  ft. 
by  10  in.,  the  handle  being  8  in.  long. 

The  stopping  knife  (Fig.  35)  is  a  strong  knife,  shaped 
like  an  Indian  spear.  It  is  slightly  flexible  at  the  edge, 
so  as  to  enable  the  workman  to  press  the  putty  well  into 
the  holes  to  be  stopped,  and  yet  is  stiff  enough  to  level 
the  putty  to  the  surrounding  surface. 


Fig.  35. — Stopping  Knife. 


The  chisel  knife  (Fig.  36)  is  made  in  various  sizes, 
varying  from  2  in.  to  8  in.  across  the  edge.  It  is  useful 
for  laying  on  the  filling-up  stuff,  for  stripping  paper  from 
the  walls,  and  for  all  kinds  of  levelling. 

The  knives  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  wiped 
immediately  after  using.  The  paint  should  not  be  allowed 
to  accumulate  about  the  handles.  Always,  therefore,  have 
handy  a  piece  of  rag  to  wipe  away  the  paint  while  still  wet. 


A  pocket  knife,  too,  is  very  useful  for  cleaning  out 
quirks  in  remote  places,  which  are  inaccessible  to  a  larger 
knife. 


36 


PRACTICAL  PAIR  TEES’  WORK. 


A  hacking  knife,  leather-bound  in  the  handle,  is  very 
useful ;  no  other  knife  will  do  as  well,  and  no  makeshift 
is  economical. 

A  valuable  auxiliary  to  the  painter’s  outfit  is  the 
aerograph  spray  painter,  which  ejects  the  paint  as  a 
spray  produced  by  means  of  compressed  air.  The  colour 
is  easily  deposited. on  surfaces  that  would  either  be  dam¬ 
aged  by  or  would  resist  the  action  of  brush-work.  The 
rapidity  of  its  action  is  only  limited  by  the  power  of  the 
operator  to  shape  and  develop  his  design;  because  the  most 
rugged  and  intractable  surface  cannot  offer  the  slightest 
opposition  to  the  action  of  the  aerograph,  whereas  the 
painter  wastes  time,  and  is  forced  to  abandon  many 
promising  artistic  conceptions  as  impracticable,  because 
of  the  intractability  of  surfaces,  and  because  of  the  friction 
inseparable  from  the  use  of  the  brush.  Another  advantage 
is  the  delicate  gradation  of  tone  that  can  be  secured.  The 
emission  of  the  colour  can  be  controlled  with  the  utmost 
nicety  by  means  of  a  valve  regulated  by  the  finger  of  the 
operator,  who  can  thus  at  will  produce  close,  open,  or  most 
delicately  graduated  shading  of  tinting,  granulated  or 
solid.  Stencilling  can  be  done  by  means  of  the  aerograph 
much  more  rapidly,  and  with  far  more  artistic  results, 
than  with  the  stencil  brush.  Embossed  wall  hangings  offer 
excellent  opportunities  for  the  use  of  the  aerograph,  and 
gold  and  silver  enrichments  can  be  applied  through  the 
medium  of  this  instrument  with  as  much  ease  as  ordinary 
colours.  The  instrument  for  small  work  is  of  about  the 
same  size,  and  presents  much  the  same  appearance,  as  an 
ordinary  stylographic  pen.  The  compressed  air  is  sup¬ 
plied  from  a  pump  worked  by  the  operator’s  foot.  The 
handpiece  for  larger  work,  such  as  mural  decoration  on  a 
bold  scale,  or  distemper  washes,  is  larger,  and  of  the 
shape  shown  in  Fig.  37,  which  is  about  one-fourth  full 
size.  It  is  fed  by  a  wheel  hand-pump  of  3-in.  diameter 
and  having  a  7-in.  stroke,  the  whole  apparatus  weighing 
about  125  lb.  A  flexible  tube  for  compressed  air  connects 
with  the  nipple  A.  The  finger  lever  F  controls  both  the  air 
valve  and  a  paint  valve  in  the  nozzle  at  N,  so  that  little 
or  much  paint  may  be  allowed  to  pass  out  into  the  cur¬ 
rent  of  escaping  air.  The  paint  may  be  supplied,  under 
pressure,  through  a  flexible  tube  from  a  large  paint-pot, 


PAINTERS'  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


37 


passing  through  the  tube  p  to  the  nozzle  N,  or  it  may  be 
supplied  in  smaller  quantities  from  a  cup  (Fig.  38),  which 
is  attachable  at  b,  and  when  so  attached  cuts  off  the 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  37. 


Figs.  37  and  38. — Aerograph  Spray 
Painter  Handpiece  and  Cup. 


supply  through  the  tube  p.  The  cup  is  useful  when  small 
quantities  of  colour  are  wanted  with  frequent  changes. 
A  ball  joint  permits  of  work  on  a  table  or  a  ceiling  being 
done.  The  tips  or  spraying  nozzles  are  made  in  three 


38 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


sizes— No.  1,  for  small  stencil  work,  etc.  ;  No.  2,  for  solid 
painting  in  oils  ;  No.  3,  large  enough  for  limewash. 

By  means  of  the  Star  machine  (Fig.  39),  whitewashing, 
cold-water  painting,  and  calcimining  can  be  done  rapidly, 
cheaply,  and  with  the  least  possible  degree  of  incon¬ 
venience.  Scaffolding  is  not  needed,  and  all  cracks  and 
crevices,  some  of  which  may  be  quite  inaccessible  to  the 
brush,  are  easily  reached  and  filled  by  means  of  the 
machine,  which  is  a  portable  but  powerful  pump,  drawing 
its  supply  from  a  suitable  vessel,  and  forcing  the  fluid 
through  a  hose,  at  the  end  of  which  a  suitable  nozzle,  or 


Fig-.  39. — Star  Whitewashing  Machine. 


spray-producer,  delivers  the  stuff  as  directed.  A  pressure- 
gauge  being  provided,  the  pressure  can  be  nicely  regulated 
in  accordance  with  the  greater  or  less  density  of  the  mix¬ 
ture  used,  or  to  suit  any  peculiarities  of  the  surface  or  of 
its  situation. 

Whilst  machine-painters  working  on  the  spraying 
system  may  often  prove  great  labour-savers,  they  are  not 
suitable  for  work  in  which  the  proper  union  of  the  pro¬ 
tective  coating  and  the  surface  can  only  be  gained  by  well 
rubbing  in  the  paint  with  good  brushes. 


CHAPTER  III. 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 

The  painter  can  hardly  take  too  much  pains  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  properties  of  his  materials.  One  of 
the  greatest  causes  of  inferior  durability  is  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  inferior  materials.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  the 
pigments  and  the  vehicles  must  be  pure  and  unadulterated. 
The  linseed  oil  should  be  of  good  colour,  and  flexible  in 
use.  The  unsightly  yellow  tinge  in  white  and  light  tints 
if  often  due  to  new  or  adulterated  white-lead.  White  is 
very  apt  at  any  time  to  lose  not  only  its  purity  of  tint, 
but  also  its  gloss  or  brilliancy,  when  exposed  to  the  atmo¬ 
sphere,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  in  sea  air. 

The  nature,  composition,  and  manufacture  of  pigments, 
oils,  and  varnishes  is  fully  described  in  the  companion 
volume,  “Painters’  Oils,  Colours,  and  Varnishes,”  but 
sufficient  information  on  this  subject  will  be  given  here  to 
enable  the  painter  to  use  his  materials  intelligently.  Var¬ 
nishes  and  stains  are  dealt  with  separately  in  Chapters 
XI.  and  XII.  respectively.  Reliable  methods  of  detecting 
adulteration  are  described  in  the  companion  volume  above 
mentioned. 

White-lead  (a  mixture  of  7  parts  of  lead  carbonate  and 
3  parts  of  lead  hydrate)  is,  on  account  of  its  great  body  or 
covering  power,  generally  used  as  the  common  base  of 
paints.  It  is  a  very  tractable  medium,  retaining  any 
touch,  and  will  lay  off  perfectly  clear  or  retain  a  brush- 
mark.  It  combines  well  with  most  pigments,  but  injures 
those  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  highly  poisonous,  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  flesh. 

White-lead,  which  is  practically  the  main  ingredient  of 
oil-paint,  is  used  for  all  work  requiring  body,  and  is  easily 
and  therefore  extensively  adulterated.  Trouble  with 
white-lead  may  arise  from  one  of  three  causes :  (1)  Bad  or 
unsuitable  oil ;  (2)  imperfect  manufacture  ;  (3)  adulteration. 
In  the  manufacturing  of  white-lead,  metallic  lead  is  placed 
in  pots  of  a  curious  construction,  and  the  lead  subjected  to 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


40 

the  action  of  vinegar.  The  pots  are  placed  in  a  row  and 
covered  with  boards,  above  these  being  ft.  of  spent  tan 
bark,  then  another  row  of  pots  and  bark,  and  so  on  till  the 
room  is  full.  The  lead  remains  thus  for  three  months  or 
ninety  days,  and  is  then  taken  out. 

White-lead  ground  into  the  state  of  dry  powder  will 
keep  indefinitely,  but  ground  with  oil  it  quickly  hardens 
and  becomes  useless  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  White- 
lead  in  oil  is  usually  kept  in  casks  under  a  layer  of  water, 
and  it  will  be  adaptable  for  use  for  a  long  time  if  treated 
m  this  way,  though  it  hardens  slowly. 

Refined  linseed  oil  is  mixed  with  white-lead  owing  to  its 
exceedingly  pale  colour,  which  does  not  discolour  the 
white-lead  as  does  ordinary  raw  or  boiled  linseed  oil,  which 
gives  a  yellowish  tint.  The  bluish  tint  is  caused  by  the 
addition  of_  a  small  quantity  of  brunswick  blue  or  ultra- 
marine  before  the  material  is  ground  into  a  paste  ;  the 
blue  is  added  to  counteract  the  yellowish  tint  so  charac¬ 
teristic  of  dry  white-leads. 

The  white  pigments  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  sub¬ 
stitutes  for  white-lead  are  Glasgow  white,  zinc  white,  Orr’s 
white  enamel  (or  Charlton  white),  Griffith’s  patent  zinc 
white,  and  Freeman’s  white.  .  All  these  pigments  have  one 
advantage  over  white-lead — that  is,  they  are  not  so  readily 
acted  upon  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  therefore,  if  used  in 
towns  where  foul  gases  are  likely  to  be  evolved,  they  do 
not  so  soon  blacken.  Some  of  the  substitutes  do  not 
change  colour  at  all  in  situations  where  white-lead  would 
rapidly  become  discoloured  ;  zinc  white,  Orr’s  white,  and 
Griffith’s  white,  for  instance,  are  not  affected. 

White-lead  has  greater  body  and  covering  power  than 
any  of  the  other  white  pigments,  none  of  the  substitutes 
being  quite  equal  to  it  in  this  respect,  whilst  some  are 
rather  poor  in  these  qualities.  Those  substitutes  con¬ 
taining  sulphide  of  zinc  discolour  pigments  containing 
copper  or  lead,  owing  to  the  formation  of  the  sulpirides 
of  those  metals.  This  defect  is  not  shared  by  white-lead, 
though  white-lead  is  itself  discoloured  by  other  pigments 
— cadmium  sulphide,  for  instance. 

The  principal  substitute  for  white-lead  is  zinc  white, 
which  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  heat  on  certain  com¬ 
pounds.  The  carbonate  or  hydroxide  of  zinc  is  subjected 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


41 


to  great  heat,  which  causes  the  zinc  to  lose  part  of  its  con¬ 
stituents,  the  residue  being  crude  zinc  white  or  Chinese 
white.  It  is  then  cleaned,  levigated,  and  dried.  Zinc 
white  is  prepared  for  water-colour  painting  by  grinding  it 
through  levigating  or  flat  stones  into  a  pulp  with  water 
until  quite  free  from  grit,  after  which  it  is  placed  in  col¬ 
lapsible  tubes.  Zinc  white  may  also  be  prepared  by  simply 
grinding  with  water  through  a  small  cone  or  pug  mill. 
Zinc  white  requires  more  oil  in  mixing  than  wdiite-lead. 
It  easily  powders,  does  not  spread  so  well  under  the  brush, 
and  has  little  body  ;  consequently,  it  is  of  no  use  for  out¬ 
side  work.  Freeman’s  white  is  said  to  be  a  mixture  of 
zinc  and  lead,  and  to  combine  the  virtues  of  both  these 
pigments. 

Red-lead  is  a  brilliant  red  in  colour,  and  may  be  pre¬ 
pared  by  exposing  the  monoxide  at  a  faint  red  heat,  un¬ 
fused,  for  a  long  time  to  the  air.  It  is  the  best  priming 
for  metal  work,  to  which  it  clings  persistently ;  but  it 
should  not  be  used  for  work  which  is  to  be  afterwards 
varnished,  or  for  woodwork.  It  causes  varnish  to  be¬ 
come  dull.  Its  strong  colour  is  of  a  very  lasting  nature, 
surviving  after  superimposed  colours  have  worn  off  or 
faded.  White-lead  is  preferred  to  red-lead  for  priming, 
since  it  fills  up  well,  hardens,  and  harmonises  with  all 
succeeding  coats  of  paint.  Red-lead  may  easily  be  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  all  other  pigments  (except  those  contain¬ 
ing  lead,  litharge,  or  white-lead)  by  heating  a  small  quan¬ 
tity  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe,  when  a  small  malle¬ 
able  button  of  metallic  lead  will  be  obtained.  If  the  blow¬ 
ing  operation  is  carefully  performed,  impurities  present 
will  remain  on  the  charcoal. 

Litharge  or  massicot  is  the  monoxide  of  lead.  If  lead 
be  melted  and  exposed  to  the  air  a  film  of  litharge  will  be 
produced.  Common  litharge  is  the  monoxide  which  has 
been  fused.  The  oxide  is  a  straw-yellow  colour. 

There  are  several  tests  for  impurities  in  white-lead, 
among  them  being  the  following : — (a)  Scoop  out  a  hollow 
in  a  square  block  of  charcoal,  and  in  this  hollow  place  the 
white-lead  to  be  tested.  By  means  of  a  blow-pipe  direct 
the  outer  part  of  a  flame  upon  the  white-lead,  and  in 
a  few  minutes  it  will  be  converted  to  blue  lead.  The 
residue,  which  will  be  in  the  form  of  dust,  will  be  the 


42  PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 

adulterant.  ( b )  Place  some  of  the  white-lead  on  a  palette 
knife  or  in  a  ladle  and  hold  it  over  a  fire  ;  if  only  pure  lead 
is  left  in  the  ladle,  the  white-lead  is  pure,  but  if  there  is 
any  ash  or  other  foreign  matter,  the  lead  has  been  adul¬ 
terated  to  that  extent,  (c)  The  specimens  of  white-lead 
should  be  rubbed  up  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid  on  a  glass 
slab,  using  a  bone  palette  knife  or  strip  of  glass.  •  If  the 
lead  is  of  good  quality,  a  smooth,  pulpy  mixture  will  be 
the  result ;  if  the  lead  is  bad,  a  curdy  incohesive  mass 
will  be  produced.  ( cl )  Mix  the  white-lead  with  turpentine, 
and  allow  to  settle ;  pour  off  the  liquid,  and  mix  the 
residue  with  benzine,  and  allow  to  settle  ;  again  pour  off 
the  liquid,  and  dry  the  residue  on  blotting-paper.  If  this 
dry  residue  is  shaken  up  with  nitric  acid,  all  of  it  that  is 
pure  lead  will  dissolve.  That  which  does  not  dissolve  is 
the  adulterant,  (e)  If  white-lead  is  boiled  in  nitric  acid 
and  allowed  to  settle,  the  sediment  will  be  the  adulterant. 

To  test  the  covering  powers  of  different  samples  of 
white-lead,  mix  them  into  paint,  separately  weighing  out 
the  vehicles,  and,  having  prepared  two  black  boards,  one 
for  each  sample,  paint  one  coat  of  colour  all  over  the 
board,  paint  another  coat  over  two-thirds  of  its  surface, 
and  a  third  coat  over  one-third.  It  will  then  be  seen 
which  sample  possesses  the  greatest  covering  power. 

To  test  the  fineness  of  white-lead,  rub  both  samples  in 
a  measured  quantity  on  the  same  piece  of  glass.  By  hold¬ 
ing  the  glass  up  to  the  light  any  difference  in  fineness  as 
well  as  of  density  will  be  seen.  To  test  for  fineness, 
whiteness,  and  colouring  properties,  take  two  glass  jars  of 
the  same  translucency,  and  put  in  each  a  pint  of  pure 
turps ;  then  place  in  each  jar  an  equal  amount  of  lead 
(rubbed  up),  and  mix  well.  When  the  contents  of  the  jars 
settle,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  which  is  the  whiter  by  looking 
at  it  from  the  side  whence  the  light  proceeds.  For  fine¬ 
ness  and  covering,  look  through  the  jars  from  the  opposite 
side.  Finely  ground  lead  takes  longer  to  settle  than  the 
coarse  variety. 

Another  simple  way  of  testing  white-lead  is  to  ascertain 
its  relative  opacity.  A  given  quantity  of  pure  white-lead 
(say  100  parts  by  weight)  and  2  parts  of  lampblack  should 
be  well  mixed  and  rubbed  out  with  oil  on  a  slab  or  piece 
of  glass.  Then  take  the  same  weight  of  the  sample  which 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAIN  TEES. 


43 


is  to  bo  tested  and  treat  it  in  a  similar  manner,  and  place 
both  the  samples  side  by  side  on  a  piece  of  glass.  The 
pure  white-lead  will  be  a  light  drab,  whilst  the  sample 
will  be  a  dark  drab  if  adulterated  with  barytes.  The  more 
the  lead  is  adulterated,  tire  darker  the  drab,  for  the 
barytes,  having  no  .staining  property  such  as  white-lead 
has,  requires  very  little  colouring  matter  to  change  its 
shade,  being  quite  transparent  when  rubbed  out  with  oil. 

Red-lead  may  easily  be  tested  for  purity  by  taking  any 
quantity  of  the  suspected  sample  and  boiling  with  nitric 
acid  until  it  is  thoroughly  decomposed.  Any  insoluble 
matter  can  be  filtered  and  weighed.  Any  yellow  stain  that 
may  appear  in  the  solution  indicates  iron.  Treatment 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  results  in  a  precipitate  of  sul¬ 
phate  of  lead,  which  should  be  filtered  and  weighed,  when 
the  weight,  multiplied  by  0'955,  gives  the  quantity  of  the 
pure  red-lead  in  the  sample. 

The  most  important  vehicle  used  in  mixing  paint  is 
linseed  oil.  This  oil  is  extracted  from  the  seed  of  the 
common  flax  plant  (Linum  usitatissimuin),  which  is  cul¬ 
tivated  chiefly  in  Russia,  America,  India,  and  around  the 
Baltic.  The  seed  varies  in  quality,  the  Baltic  seed  being 
the  most  valuable,  as  it  yields  a  finer  oil  than  any  other. 

Two  different  processes  of  extracting  the  oil  are  em¬ 
ployed — namely,  the  cold-drawn  process  and  the  steaming 
process.  In  the  first-named  process  the  seeds  are  bruised 
and  crushed,  and  the  oil  is  expressed  without  heat.  The 
product  is  a  pale  oil,  which  does  not  keep  so  well  as  that 
resulting  from  the  steaming  process.  In  the  steaming 
process  the  seed  is  first  crashed  by  means  of  heavy  steel 
rollers,  and  then  ground  fine  under  edge-runner  mills.  It 
is  then  submitted  to  a  steam  heat  of  about  200°  F.  in  a 
steam  kettle.  The  seed,  in  specially  prepared  bags,  is 
subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure,  and  the  oil,  as  it  runs 
from  the  presses,  is  pumped  into  large  tanks,  where  it  is 
left  for  two  or  three  weeks  to  allow  the  sediment  or 
"  foots  ”  to  settle.  The  seed  yields  from  22  per  cent,  to 
27  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  seed  is  moulded  and  pressed  into 
a  variety  of  shapes,  generally  known  as  linseed  oil  cakes, 
which  are  used  for  feeding  cattle. 

The  bleaching  or  refining  of  linseed  oil  is  usually 
effected  by  means  of  a  2-per-cent,  concentrated  solution 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


44 


of  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  well  agitated  with  the  oil, 
and  finally  given  a  good  washing.  The  bleached  oils  are 
used  principally  by  paint  manufacturers  for  grinding  white- 
lead,  zinc  white,  and  other  delicate-coloured  pigments, 
which  the  oil  does  not  discolour. 

Boiled  linseed  oil,  as  used  by  painters,  is  prepared  by 
boiling  the  raw  oil  either  by  furnace  heat  or  by  steam 
heat,  and  adding  various  kinds  of  driers,  as  acetate  of 
lead,  red-lead,  litharge,  and  the  borates,  resinates,  and 
linoleates  of  manganese.  The  linseed  oil  is  run  into  a 
large  tank  containing  a  steam  coil ;  the  oil  is  then  heated 
to  200°  F.,  driving  away  any  moisture  the  oil  may  contain. 
Air  is  then  blown  through  the  oil  by  means  of  an  air- 
pump,  the  oil  being  agitated  by  means  of  a  vertical  shaft 
having  two  or  more  blades.  The  driers  (usually  2  lb.  to 
each  1  cwt.  of  oil)  are  then  added  very  slowly.  The  oil 
is  run  off  into  tanks  to  settle,  the  clear  oil  being  finally 
run  off  for  use.  Boiled  oil  is  soluble  in  shale  spirits, 
benzine,  carbon  bisulphide,  and  turpentine.  If  boiled  with 
potassium  or  sodium  hydrate,  the  oil  is  saponified. 

When  exposed  to  the  air,  both  raw  oil  and  boiled  oil 
absorb  oxygen,  the  boiled  more  rapidly  than  the  raw ;  the 
absorption  in  the  boiled  oil  is  aided  by  the  addition 
of  driers,  which  increases  the  oxidisation  of  the  oil  and 
assists  in  the  formation  of  a  hard  resinous  crust.  Boiled 
oils  are  mostly  adulterated,  the  chief  adulterants  being 
resin  and  mineral  and  Niger  seed  oils. 

Raw  linseed  oil,  though  often  specified  for  outside 
work,  is  more  suitable  for  mixing  pigments  to  be  used 
for  interiors.  Boiled  oil,  to  which  litharge  has  been  added, 
is  preferable  for  outdoor  work  because  of  its  extra  body 
and  brilliancy,  and  in  all  cases  in  which  rapid  drying  is 
required,  although  its  darker  colour  disqualifies  it  for  use 
with  delicate  tints.  The  property  which  gives  linseed  oil 
its  special  value  as  a  paint  oil  is  that  when  exposed  to  the 
air  it  gradually  becomes  hard — dries  up — in  doing -which 
it  takes  from  the  atmosphere  a  large  proportion  of  oxy¬ 
gen,  forming  a  new  compound  of  a  resinous  character,  the 
properties  of  which  have  never  been  fully  investigated. 
In  this  power  of  combining  with  oxygen,  linseed  oil  is 
distinguished  very  markedly  from  other  oils,  which  have 
little  or  no  powTer  of  combining  with  oxygen. 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


45 


Raw  linseed  oil  is  added  to  boiled  linseed  oil  to  pre¬ 
vent  cracking,  and  turpentine  is  added  to  neutralise  as  far 
as  possible  the  tendency  of  boiled  oil  to  darken  with  age. 
Raw  linseed  oil  dries  very  slowly,  especially  when  used 
with  sienna  or  vandyke,  and  it  should  not  be  used  without 
driers.  Raw  oil  is  thinner  than  boiled  oil,  works  easily, 
and  wears  well  as  a  binder  to  colour.  It  allows  of  the 
coats  of  colour  being  laid  on  thinner,  and  so  hardening 
through  more  completely.  Raw  linseed  oil  should  be  kept 
corked  up  for  two  years  to  allow  impurities  to  settle. 

Linseed  oil  destroys  the  colour  of  vermilion  and  of  crim¬ 
son  lake,  which  pigments,  moreover,  are  apt  to  settle  as  a 
sediment  in  the  pot ;  they  should  therefore  be  mixed  with 
varnish  instead  of  with  oil. 

One  gallon  of  linseed  oil  weighs  rather  more  than 

lb.  (correctly  9‘3  lb.),  thus  there  are  12  gal.  in  1  cwt. 
of  oil ;  1  gal.  of  turpentine  weighs  more  than  8^  lb.  (cor¬ 
rectly,  8'67  lb.),  and  1  cwt.  will  contain  13  gal.  A  barrel 
of  turpentine  contains  36  gal. 

The  specific  gravity  of  linseed  oil  varies  between  '932 
and  ’937  ;  most  other  oils  that  could  be  used  as  adulterants 
of  linseed  oil  have  a  lower  specific  gravity,  cotton-seed  and 
hemp-seed  oils  being  -930,  walnut  oil  '929,  poppy-seed  oil 
•926,  sunflower-seed  oil  ’925,  earth  nut  ‘918,  and  colza  ’914 ; 
mineral  oils  have  a  lower  gravity  still,  while  resin  oils 
have  a  very  high  gravity,  hence  the  specific  gravity  is  a 
guide  to  the  purity  of  linseed  oil. 

The  drying  power  of  oils  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  oxygen  they  are  capable  of  absorbing,  hence 
Linache’s  test  is  a  good  one  for  the  purpose.  A  large 
watch-glass  is  taken,  and  upon  it  is  spread  about  1  gramme 
of  precipitated  lead ;  the  watch-glass  is  then  weighed,  the 
oil,  about  ‘6  gramme  or  '7  gramme,  is  dropped  upon  the 
lead,  and  the  whole  weighed  to  get  the  exact  amount  of 
oil  taken  ;  the  watch-glass  is  then  exposed  to  light  in  a 
place  free  from  dust ;  after  two  days  the  glass  may  be 
again  weighed.  Linseed  oil  treated  in  this  manner  gained 
14  per  cent,  in  weight,  while  walnut  oil  gained  only  half 
that  amount,  and  the  other  oils  much  less. 

Maumene’s  test  is  also  very  useful  and  is  easily  carried 
out.  Fifty  grammes  of  the  oil  are  weighed  out  into  a 
beaker,  and  this  is  placed  in  a  larger  beaker,  the  space 


46 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK 


between  the  two  being  filled  with  cotton-wool;  10  c.c.  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  are  run  gently  into  the  oil 
from  a  burette,  the  oil  being  stirred  with  a  thermometer 
during  the  operation'.  The  oil  is  charred  and  decomposed 
by  the  acid,  the  temperature  rising  considerably ;  linseed 
oil  yields  a  rise  of  temperature  of  103°  to  124°  C.  Some  of 
the  fish  oils  give  an  equal  or  even  a  greater  rise,  but 
the  other  seed  oils  are  much  lower,  cotton-seed  oil  being 
about  75°  0.  To  determine  the  rise,  the  temperature  of 
the  oil  before  the  experiment  is  deducted  from  the  highest 
temperature  recorded.  Boiled  linseed  oil  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  ‘945,  and  in  other  particulars  differs  from 
the  raw  oil. 

There  is  a  great  number  of  other  tests  for  linseed  oil, 
all  of  which  are  described  in  the  companion  manual, 
“  Painters’  Oils,  Colours,  and  Tarnishes.” 

Gold-size  is  prepared  in  two  conditions  for  the  painters’ 
use — as  oil  gold-size  and  japanners’  gold-size.  The  latter, 
which  is  a  quick-drying  size,  is  used  for  outside  work,  but 
is  inferior  to  oil  gold-size,  which  is  made  from  oil-skins, 
etc.,  that  have  been  allowed  to  stand  for  years  exposed  to 
air  in  order  to  become  “fat.”  It  is  mixed  with  yellow 
ochre  and  sold  as  prepared  gold-size.  Generally  the  size 
has  to  be  further  treated  to  suit  different  requirements ; 
fat  oil  is  added  to  it  to  increase  its  drying  properties.  The 
longer  it  takes  in  drying,  the  brighter  is  the  gilding. 

Boiled  oil,  and  sometimes  japanners’  gold-size,  is  used 
for  quickening  it.  The  gold-size,  when  ready  for  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  the  gold-leaf,  is  of  such  a  consistency  as  to 
hold  the  gold-leaf  without  absorbing  it ;  but  such  absorp¬ 
tion  is  likely  to  occur  if  the  leaf  is  applied  too  soon. 

The  drying  capacity  of  japanners’  gold-size  varies  from 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  one  hour,  that  of  oil  gold-size  from 
twelve  hours  to  three  weeks. 

Baltic  oil  is  superior  in  drying  properties  and  in  other 
respects  to  Black  Sea  and  East  India  oil.  Walnut  oil  is 
said  to  be  superior  even  to  linseed  oil  for  drying  properties, 
but  it  costs  much  more,  being  chiefly  used  by  artists. 
Hemp-seed  oil  is  seldom  used  by  painters  in  this  country, 
on  account  of  its  high  price.  Poppy-seed  oil  is  a  drying 
oil,  sometimes  so  prepared  as  to  be  colourless ;  it  is  not 
used  in  house-painting,  being  inferior  to  linseed  oil. 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


47 


Oil  of  turpentine,  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  ordinary  or 
common  turpentine  are  all  the  same  thing.  Crude  tur¬ 
pentine  is  turpentine  as  it  is  derived  direct  from  the  pine 
trees.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  really  the  essential  or  volatile 
oil  of  turpentine  after  distillation,  and  must  not  be  classed 
with  the  ordinary  kinds  of  oils,  such  as  linseed  oil,  olive 
oil,  etc.,  which  are  non-volatile,  and  have  a  different  com¬ 
position  altogether.  There  is  an  oil  of  turpentine  known 
as  fat  oil  of  turpentine,  but  this  is  simply  ordinary  tur¬ 
pentine  that  has  been  exposed  to  air  for  some  time  and 
has  become  thickened  or  partly  resinified  by  oxidation. 
Turpentine  is  an  essential  or  volatile  oil ;  it  prevents 
colour  from  spreading,  helps  it  to  penetrate,  makes  it  flow 
well,  hardens  it,  and  causes  the  paint  to  set  quickly.  As, 
however,  it  destroys  all  gloss,  it  should  never  be  added  to 
varnish.  Turpentine  dries  mainly  by  evaporation ;  when 
used  as  a  thinner  for  paint  it  causes  it  to  dry  with  a  flat 
or  dull  surface.  Paint  compounded  with  turps  alone  can 
be  rubbed  away  by  friction. 

The  only  simple  method  of  testing  the  purity  of  tur¬ 
pentine  is  the  test  by  smell,  a  guaranteed  sample  of  pure 
American  turpentine  being  used  as  the  standard.  The 
test  may  be  aided  by  slightly  wanning  the  samples.  Tur¬ 
pentine,  if  adulterated  with  substitutes  such  as  resin, 
spirit,  or  coal-tar  naphtha  and  shale  spirits  and  then 
heated,  gives  off  a  pungent  odour  entirely  different  from 
pure  American  turpentine.  Another  method  is  to  distil 
the  turps  ;  this  would  require  special  chemical  apparatus, 
such  as  retorts,  stills,  etc.  The  pure  turpentine  and  tur¬ 
pentine  substitute,  when  distilled,  pass  over  at  different 
temperatures  ;  therefore  the  various  temperatures  at  which 
the  samples  distil  should  be  compared  with  the  distilla¬ 
tion  temperatures  of  the  adulterants,  when  the  approxi¬ 
mate  amount  of  the  adulterant  may  easily  be  determined. 
By  weighing  the  amount  obtained  at  the  various  tem¬ 
peratures,  the  quantity  of  each  adulterant  also  may  be 
ascertained. 

Petroleum  spirit  or  benzoline  may  be  used  as  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  turpentine,  but  there  are  disadvantages  which 
detract  from  its  usefulness,  otherwise  it  would  have  come 
into  use  long  ago.  It  forms  a  more  fluid  paint  than 
turpentine,  that  is,  it  does  not  produce  such  a  good  body. 


48 


PR  AG  TIG AL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


Driers  are  materials  whose  nature  it  is  to  accelerate 
the  drying  of  paint.  They  are  added  in  quantities  varying 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  colours,  and  the  work 
for  which  they  are  required.  Used  too  freely,  they  affect 
the  durability  of  the  paint,  and  the  less  driers  used  the 
longer  will  the  paint  last.  Colours  which  dry  without  any 
external  assistance  last  the  longest.  Some  colours,  such  as 
the  siennas,  Vandyke  brown,  etc.,  are  very  slow-drying. 
Driers  are  sometimes  added  to  counteract  an  excess  of  oil 
in  the  paint. 

Among  the  many  driers  in  use  may  be  mentioned 
patent  driers,  white  vitriol,  sugar  of  lead,  litharge,  borate 
of  lime,  borate  of  zinc,  borate  of  manganese,  and  tere- 
bene.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  an  overplus  of  driers  will 
retard  the  drying  of  paint ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  name  a 
proper  quantity  to  use,  as  this  is  always  governed  by  cir¬ 
cumstances.  For  white-lead  colour,  litharge  is  best,  as 
it  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  lead.  Terebene  is  so  power¬ 
ful  a  drier  that  it  will  cause  colour  to  dry  on  a  candle. 
Patent  driers  are  most  commonly  used,  but  these  should 
be  used  with  caution,  as  they  vary  in  quality.  They  are 
bad  if  they  show  a  dark  matter  on  the  top  of  the  keg, 
have  a  brittle  skin,  turn  a  livid  white  under  water,  or  have 
a  body.  An  excess  of  terebene  causes  cracking.  Resinous 
substances,  such  as  japanners’  gold-size  or  varnish,  are 
also  used  as  driers,  but  if  used  too  freely  they  make  the 
paint  brittle  and  cause  cracking.  Drying  oils,  such  as 
boiled  linseed  or  drying  oil,  nut  oil,  etc.,  will  cause  the 
colour  to  dry  without  any  further  addition. 

Driers  are  resorted  to  because  of  the  necessity  of  paint 
drying  quickly  enough  to  escape  damage  by  dust,  etc. 
The  more  driers  put  to  the  colour  the  quicker  it  dries  to 
the  touch,  but  not  all  through.  Too  much  driers  prevents 
the  colour  from  getting  hard  ;  a  deal  of  the  cracking  is 
caused  by  too  much,  or  bad,  driers.  From  this  cause  the 
paint  is  liable,  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  to  form  a 
kind  of  soap,  if  the  driers  contain  borax,  resin,  and 
naphtha.  Thiers  hasten  the  drying  of  the  colour,  but 
shorten  its  life. 

Driers  in  paints  should  not  exceed  from  3  to  5  per  cent, 
by  weight  of  siccative,  and  to  ascertain  the  correct  propor¬ 
tion  the  paint  should  be  required  to  dry  hard  in  twenty- 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


49 

four  hours.  For  lead  colours  increase  the  amount  of  driers, 
though  for  red-lead  do  not  use  any  driers  at  all.  For  non- 
tacky  coatings  on  floors,  chairs,  etc.,  and  for  graining 
grounds,  always  employ  lead  colour  as  the  foundation  and 
a  lead  preparation  as  the  drier,  but  do  not  use  lead  driers 
in  pure  zinc  white  preparations  and  in  white  lacquering. 

The  whole  subject  of  drying  oils  is  highly  technical,  and 
much  remains  to  be  learned  as  to  the  behaviour  of  the 
various  oils  in  drying.  Instead  of  attempting  a  lengthy 
explanation  here,  it  is  better  to  refer  the  reader  to  the 
companion  volume  “Painters’  Oils,  Colours,  and  Tar¬ 
nishes,  ”  where  the  subject  is  discussed  as  fully  as  present- 
day  knowledge  permits. 

Patent  driers  in  the  form  of  paste  may  be  used  for 
work  where  the  time  is  not  limited,  and  for  most  inside 
work.  Liquid  driers  may  be  used  for  quick  work,  or  work 
liable  to  be  affected  by  the  weather.  The  more  time  al¬ 
lowed  the  work  in  drying,  the  longer  the  paint  will  last. 
Liquid  driers,  whilst  very  useful  in  certain  circumstances, 
have  a  tendency  to  make  the  paint  brittle.  The  amount 
of  driers  to  be  used  depends  on  the  strength  of  the  driers, 
the  nature  of  the  pigment,  and  the  state  of  the  weather, 
the  variation  being  1  part  to  8  parts  of  driers  to  25  parts  of 
paint. 

It  will  save  much  trouble  if  all  driers  are  tested  before 
use ;  this  can  easily  be  done  by  thinning  the  paste  with 
turpentine  to  about  the  consistency  of  paint,  then  painting 
a  smooth  board  with  it,  allowing  the  board  to  stand  in  a 
warm  place.  A  good  drier  will  be  hard  in  an  hour  or 
two ;  at  the  outside,  it  should  not  take  more  than  six 
hours.  A  good  boiled  oil  would  be  nearly  dry  in  that 
time,  and  would  in  any  case  dry  in  twelve  hours. 

Terebine,  a  very  powerful  drier,  has  been  mentioned. 
This  may  vary  in  composition,  but  it  usually  consists 
essentially  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  turpentine.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  recipe  will  give  about  4  gal  of  terebine :  Place 
in  a  suitable  iron  vessel  3  lb.  of  powdered  litharge,  2  lb.  of 
red-lead,  \  lb.  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  1  gal.  of  boiled  oil. 
Heat  over  the  fire  for  about  half  an  hour,  constantly 
stirring.  Allow  the  mixture  to  cool  down  somewhat,  and 
add  1  gal.  of  japanners’  gold-size  and  1  gal.  of  American 
turpentine,  stir  well,  and  pass  through  a  fine  strainer.  The 

D 


50 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


terebine  is  left  for  about  fourteen  days  in  order  to  brighten, 
when  the  clear  top  portion  is  ready  for  use.  This  terebine 
will  possess  good  drying  properties,  and  may  be  used  for 
any  purpose. 

Pigments  will  now  be  discussed ;  those  serving  as  bases 
(white-lead  red-lead,  etc.)  have  already  been  mentioned. 
Natural  pigments  are  usually  preferable  to  those  pro¬ 
duced  by  processes  of  manufacture.  Raw  umbers  and  raw 
siennas,  for  instance,  are  more  durable  than  burnt  umbers 
and  burnt  siennas.  As  a  rule,  however,  burnt  umber 
should  not  be  used  for  outdoor  painting,  for  which  work 
a  mixture,  to  the  required  tint,  of  lampblack  and  some 
oxide  colour,  such  as  Venetian  red,  gives  more  satisfaction. 

For  full  particulars  of  all  the  following  pigments,  the 
reader  may  consult  the  companion  volume,  “  Painters’ 
Oils,  Colours,  and  Varnishes,”  there  being  room  here  only 
for  a  mere  list,  with  the  briefest  possible  particulars  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  pigments. 

White  pigments  include  white-lead,  a  basic  carbonate 
of  lead ;  flake  white,  pure  white-lead  ground  in  refined 
poppy-seed  oil ;  kremnitz  white,  a  mixture  of  white-lead 
and  zinc  white,  the  latter  already  having  been  described  ; 
charlton  white  and  lithopone,  composed  chiefly  of  zinc 
sulphide,  zinc  oxide,  and  barium  sulphate  ;  glasgow  white, 
sulphate  of  lead  prepared  from  natural  lead  sulphide  ; 
barytes,  natural  barium  sulphate ;  gypsum,  natural  cal¬ 
cium  sulphate  ;  kaolin,  or  china  clay,  naturally  decom¬ 
posed  felspar  ;  and  whiting,  Spanish  white,  or  paris  white, 
all  varieties  of  chalk. 

Blue  pigments  include  Prussian  blue,  known  also  as 
Chinese,  paris,  and  berlin  blue,  now  made  from  two  salts 
of  potash — the  ferrocyanide  and  the  ferricyanide  ;  bruns- 
wick,  antwerp,  and  celestial  blues,  prussian  blue  contain¬ 
ing  barytes  or  gypsum  ;  Williamson’s  and  Turnbull’s  blues, 
two  varieties  of  soluble  prussian  blue  ;  ultramarine, 
obtained  originally  from  the  mineral  lapis  lazuli,  but  noAv 
manufactured  in  two  chief  varieties,  soda  and  sulphate 
ultramarine  ;  Thenard’s  blue,  smalt,  and  coeruleum,  three 
kinds  of  cobalt  blue  ;  cobalt  ultramarine,  a  calcined  mix¬ 
ture  of  alumina  and  cobalt  phosphate  or  arsenate ;  blue 
verditer,  the  treated  precipitate  formed  by  mixing  solu¬ 
tions  of  copper  sulphate  and  soda  carbonate  ;  lime  blue, 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


51 


hydrated  carbonate  of  copper  containing  lime  sulphate ; 
mountain  blue,  ground  azurite — the  native  hydrated  copper 
carbonate ;  and,  scarcely  ever  used,  mdigo,  derived  from 
the  plant  of  the  same  name. 

Chrome  pigments  include  many  tints  of  lead  and  zinc 
chromes — the  chromates  of  lead  and  zinc  respectively ; 
derby  red,  mock  vermilion,  and  persian  red  are  names 
applied  to  various  sorts  of  chrome  red.  Guignet’s  green, 
or  viridian,  is  a  chrome  green  chiefly  consisting  of  oxide 
of  chromium. 

The  lake  pigments  include  madder  carmines,  reds, 
purples,  browns,  etc.,  and  consist  of  metallic  bases  which 
have  absorbed  colouring  matter  from  solutions  ;  there  are 
also  natural  lakes — very  expensive  pigments  ;  alizarin  and 
eosin  lakes — the  latter  called  vermilionettes  and  royal 
reds — are  also  known  ;  yellow  lakes  are  produced  by  pre¬ 
cipitating  vegetable  dyes  upon  an  alumina  base ;  dutch 
pink  is  a  wood  lake  ;  carmine  lake  and  crimson  lake  are  the 
brilliant  pigments  formed  from  the  cochineal  insect ;  indian 
lake  is  prepared  from  lac  dye  produced  by  treating  stick 
lac  with  dilute  alkali. 

Green  pigments  include  brunswick  green  or  bremen 
green,  a  common  method  of  making  this  being  to  mix 
chrome  yellow  with  Prussian  blue,  there  being  also  other 
methods ;  Scheele’s  green,  a  poisonous  basic  arsenite  of 
copper  which  should  be  avoided  ;  emerald,  schweinfurt,  or 
paris  green,  another  and  finer  arsenical  green  ;  mineral 
green,  an  artificial  arsenical  green,  or  a  natural  product ; 
verdigris,  basic  acetate  of  copper,  and  a  very  ancient  sub¬ 
stance  ;  mountain  green,  native  carbonate  of  copper ; 
cobalt  green,  a  compound  of  the  oxides  of  cobalt  and  zinc  ; 
terre  verte,  or  green  earth,  a  natural  product ;  and  royal 
green,  a  mixture  of  zinc  chrome  and  prussian  blue. 

Red  pigments  include  red-lead,  or  minium,  prepared 
from  metallic  lead  ;  many  natural  reds  such  as  oxide  red, 
indian  red,  turkey  red,  scarlet  oxide,  Spanish  brown,  pur¬ 
ple  brown,  iron  red,  etc.  ;  vermilion,  sulphide  of  mercury, 
occurring  native  as  cinnabar  ;  and  vermilionette. 

Brown  pigments  include  the  many  varieties  of  umbers 
and  ochres,  these  being  natural  pigments  ;  Vandyke  brown, 
a  kind  of  natural  peat  or  calcined  bark;  cappah  or  cap- 
pagh  brown,  native  product ;  cassel  earth,  another  natural 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


substance ;  bistre,  the  soot  of  beechwood  washed  and 
dried ;  and  sepia,  obtained  from  the  cuttle  fish. 

Black  pigments  include  lampblack,  the  soot  of  oil ;  gas- 
black,  or  carbon-black,  a  fine  variety  of  lampblack ;  char¬ 
coal-black  and  frankfort  black,  wood,  peach-stones,  etc. 
heated  in  a  retort  and  then  ground  to  powder ;  drop-black, 
lampblack  ground  in  water ;  ivory-black  and  bone-black, 
respectively  calcined  ivory  and  bone  waste. 

Yellow  and  orange  pigments  include  some  of  the 
chromes  and  lakes  already  mentioned ;  yellow  ochre,  a 
natural  product ;  siennas,  varieties  of  yellow  ochre  ;  gam¬ 
boge,  a  gum  resin  ;  cadmium  yellow,  obtained  by  passing 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  through  a  solution  of  cad¬ 
mium  chloride  or  sulphate.;  naples  yellow,  generally  con¬ 
taining  cadmium  yellow  mixed  with  a  white  pigment ; 
king’s  yellow,  or  imperial  yellow,  arsenic  sulphide  ;  cobalt 
yellow,  or  aureolin,  a  double  nitrite  of  cobalt  and  potas¬ 
sium  ;  mars  yellow,  an  artificial  ochre  containing  iron  ; 
indian  yellow,  made  from  the  urine  of  cows  fed  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  mango  tree. 

Bronze  colours  are  metallic  powders  produced  mechanic¬ 
ally  or  chemically,  the  metals  used  being  gold,  silver, 
aluminium,  copper,  and  many  special  alloys. 

Painters’  knotting  is  shellac  solution,  and  is  used  for 
painting  knots  in  new  woodwork.  A  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
powdered  shellac  is  dissolved  in  gal.  of  methylated 
spirit ;  to  do  this,  place  it  in  a  warm  place,  and  frequently 
agitate  it.  Made  this  way,  it  will  require  shaking  up  be¬ 
fore  being  used.  It  will  not  pay  to  make  it,  patent  knot¬ 
ting  being  cheaper  and  superior.  Where  patent  knotting 
is  not  available,  french  polish  will  answer  the  purpose  of 
stopping-out  the  knots.. 

Patent  knotting  is  made  in  the  following  way :  Pro¬ 
cure  2  lb.  of  orange  shellac,  2  oz.  of  pale  resin,  and  1  gal. 
of  methylated  spirit.  Powder  the  resin,  put  all  the  in¬ 
gredients  into  a  large  stone  bottle,  and  place  in  a  hot- 
water  bath,  stirring  them  at  intervals  until  they  are 
thoroughly  dissolved.  A  cover  should  be  placed  over  the 
bottle  neck  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  spirit,  but  the 
bottle  should  on  no  account  be  tightly  corked.  The 
method  usually  adopted  by  manufacturers  is  to  have  the 
ingredients  placed  in  a  steam-power  churn.  The  shellac 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


varnish  or  knotting  thus  prepared  is  run  through  a  fine 
sieve  and  then  allowed  to  rest  about  fourteen  days,  when 
the  clear  top  portion  is  ready  for  use. 

The  painter  uses  large  quantities  of  putty  as  stopping, 
and  putty  is  a  material'  of  varying  quality.  A  very  cheap 
putty  was  tested  once,  and  found  to  contain  2  parts  of  fish 
oil,  1  part  of  mineral  or  lubricating  oil,  and  1  part  of  raw 
linseed  oil,  the  base  being  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
whiting  and  sand.  Obviously  it  would  be  impossible  to 
carry  out  a  reliable  job  with  such  a  composition.  In  the 
first  place,  the  fish  oil  contains  a  large  percentage  of 
moisture,  which  causes  the  putty  to  crumble  after  being 
placed  in  exposed  positions  a  few  months ;  whilst  the 
mineral  oil,  instead  of  drying  hard  like  linseed  oil,  separ¬ 
ates  freely  from  the  whiting,  and  causes  it  to  turn  into  a 
hard,  lumpy  mass.  The  best  ordinary  putty  consists  of 
whiting  and  linseed  oil  only.  Thus  there  is  a  simple  test 
for  detecting  the  adulteration  of  linseed  oil  putty  with 
mineral  oil,  which,  being  a  non-drying  oil,  separates  after 
standing  in  the  package  about  fourteen  days,  and  comes 
to  the  surface,  when  it  may  be  easily  compared  with  lin¬ 
seed  oil.  Putty  made  with  linseed  oil  turns  hard  after  a 
reasonable  time  in  a  uniform  mass,  without  the  oil  separ¬ 
ating.  Much  sand  used  with  the  whiting  causes  the  putty 
to  crumble,  because  the  sand  consists  of  a  large  number  of 
particles,  which  cannot  combine  like  whiting  to  form  an 
adherent  mass.  Excess  of  sand  may  be  detected  by  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  linseed  oil  to  the  suspected  sample  and 
mixing  to  the  consistency  of  paint.  Then  place  the  sample 
on  a  small  piece  of  glass,  and  rub  backwards  and  forwards 
with  a  palette  knife,  when  the  grit,  which  in  the  case  of 
unadulterated  whiting  is  hardly  perceptible,  is  most 
marked  where  an  excess  of  sand  is  present. 

It  is  probably  better  and  cheaper  to  buy  putty  ready 
made  ;  but  in  many  paint  shops  a  stone  slab  or  wooden 
block  and  a  mallet  or  pounder  are  provided  for  compound¬ 
ing  the  whiting  and  raw  linseed  oil.  The  more  beating 
and  working  in  making  the  putty,  the  better  will  it  be. 
Hard  stopping  putty  consists  of  1  part  of  whiting,  1  part 
of  dry  white-lead,  and  sufficient  raw  oil  to  make  it  of  the 
right  consistence,  a  little  litharge  also  being  added  to 
hasten  the  drying. 


54 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


Of  late  years  the  painter  lias  been  less  dependent  upon 
paints  of  Ins  own  compounding,  the  manufacturers  having 
come  to  his  aid  with  a  number  of  special  and  extremely 
useful  preparations,  a  few  of  which  will  now  be  noted. 

Aspinall’s  enamel  is  well  known  for  its  brilliant  gloss, 
and  for  the  ease  with  which  it  works.  The  special  0 
quality  for  painters’  use  can  be  had  tinted  to  match  any 
pattern  for  interior  work,  but  for  exterior  work  another 
quality  is  supplied.  Articles  coated  with  0  quality  enamels 
may  at  any  time  be  washed  down,  when  they  present  a 
surface  as  clean  and  as  shiny  as  on  the  day  that  they  were 
first  applied.  Aspinall’s,  Ltd.,  manufacture  a  variety  of 
liquids  for  decorative  purposes,  as  well  as  the  now  well- 
known  sanitary  washable  distemper  sold  under  the  name  of 
Wapicti,  which  combines  the  qualities  of  a  strong  dis¬ 
infectant  and  an  antiseptic  agent.  This  dries  with  a  dull, 
flat  surface,  similar  in  effect  to  fresco  painting,  and  can 
be  had  in  a  wide  variety  of  colours.  For  damp  walls, 
Wapicti  may  be  mixed  with  a  petrifying  liquid.  It  may 
also  be  advantageously  employed  for  stippling  purposes. 

Velure,  a  comparatively  new  Japan  paint,  dispenses 
with  varnishing,  and  one  coat  is  often  sufficient,  while  two 
coats  give  a  high  degree  of  finish.  The  proprietors  claim 
that  whereas  the  cost  of  coating  90  yd.  super,  with  lead 
paint  and  varnish  (three  coats  of  lead  paint  and  one  of 
varnish)  is,  including  labour,  £3  4s.  6d. ,  a  better  result  can 
be  obtained  with  Velure  at  a  total  cost  of  £2  6s.  8d.,  re¬ 
presenting  a  saving  of  17s.  lOd.  It  is  claimed  for  Velure, 
moreover,  that  its  much  greater  elasticity  renders  it  far 
more  durable  and  more  sanitary  than  ordinary  lead  paint. 
It  is  said  not  to  crack,  chip,  peel,  blister,  or  fade,  and  is 
unaffected  by  sunshine  or  frost,  sea  air,  or  noxious  gases. 
It  has  been  successfully  used  out  of  doors  and  indoors  for 
a  great  variety  of  work,  including  ships,  bridges,  public 
buildings,  signs,  carriages,  bicycles,  etc.,  and  even  on 
tarred  surfaces  and  creosoted  poles,  though  the  last-named 
require  specal  treatment. 

Ripolin  is  described  as  a  perfect  paint,  which  does  not 
require  varnish,  and  which  dries  with  a  smooth,  glossy  sur¬ 
face  that  will  not  crack,  chip,  blister,  or  peel  off.  It  un¬ 
doubtedly  possesses  a  high  degree  of  elasticity,  which  is 
claimed  to  be  permanent,  so  that  when  applied  to  materials 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  FAIN TE llS. 


that  expand  and  contract  according  to  the  variations  of 
the  temperature,  the  surface  remains  unimpaired.  The 
variety  specially  used  for  this  purpose  is  known  as  Gloss 
Ripolin.  It  is  claimed  that  1  gal.  of  it  will  cover  (one  coat) 
from  60  yd.  to  70  yd.  super.  It  is  made  in  sixty-eight 
stock  shades.  Flat  Ripolin  has  an  egg-shell  finish,  and  all 
the  washing  and  wearing  properties  of  the  Gloss  Ripolin, 
and  can  be  used  for  either  outdoor  or  indoor  work.  A 
quality  known  as  Bridgepaint,  which,  while  superior  to 
ordinary  paint,  does  not  possess  the  beautiful  surface  of 
Ripolin,  is  recommended  for  covering  large  structures.  It 
is  strongly  anti-corrosive,  and  thus  protects  ironwork  from 
rust,  and  resists  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid.  White 
Ripolin  is  a  substitute  for  tiling  for  the  surfaces  of  operat¬ 
ing  theatres,  public  baths,  and  similar  buildings.  Ripolin 
may  be  washed  with  strong  antiseptic  fluid  and  disinfect¬ 
ants  without  detriment  to  its  surface.  Cement  Ripolin  is 
a  special  preparation  for  coating  dry  cement  and  walls, 
and  is  recommended  for  use  on  granite  plaster,  Keene’s 
cement,  adamant,  parian  cement,  etc. 

The  Silicate  Paint  Company,  of  Charlton,  S.E.,  manu¬ 
facture  a  series  of  silicate  paints  which  are  stated  not  to 
contain  any  injurious  ingredients.  These  paints  are  pre¬ 
pared  from  a  pure  silica  obtained  from  the  West  of  Eng¬ 
land  ;  this  is  levigated,  calcined,  and  mixed  with  resinous 
substances.  Besides  their  non-poisonous  qualities,  they 
are  said  to  stand  great  heat  without  blistering,  to  have  no 
chemical  action  on  metals,  and  to  cover,  weight  for  weight, 
double  the  surface  that  could  be  covered  with  ordinary 
paint. 

The  well-known  Duresco  is  prepared  by  the  same  com¬ 
pany.  It  has  more  than  all  the  advantages  of  common 
distemper,  but  is  even  more  widely  applicable.  Unlike 
distemper,  it  is  non-absorbent,  being  a  sanitary  washable 
water  paint,  supplied  in  any  desired  colours,  and  suitable 
either  for  plain  work  or  for  artistic  decorations.  When 
applied  to  brick,  stone,  or  plaster  it  hardens  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  indurate  the  surface.  It  is  stated  that  1  cwt. 
will  cover  300  yd.,  one  coat,  on  plaster  walls,  and  it  is 
extensively  used  in  hospitals,  hotels,  and  other  public 
buildings,  as  well  as  in  private  dwellings. 

Yernolene  is  a  Avater  paint  suitable  for  both  inside  and 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK 


56 

outside  work,  and  for  plain  and  decorative  treatment. 
It  is  claimed  to  be  non-absorbent  to  moisture,  having  a 
body  equal  to  and  more  durable  than  that  of  oil  paint, 
being  slow-setting  but  hard-drying,  easy  to  work, 
thoroughly  washable,  disinfecting  but  absolutely  odour¬ 
less,  drying  with  a  uniform  flat  surface  superior  to  that  of 
flatted  and  stippled  lead  paint,  cheaper  than  paint  or  wall¬ 
paper,  and  producing  a  more  artistic  finish.  It  can  be 
painted,  varnished,  and  gilded  upon,  and  is  guaranteed 
to  be  absolutely  free  from  lime,  whiting,  china  clay, 
plaster-of-paris,  or  any  similar  deleterious  substance.  Its 
base  is  said  to  be  a  chemical  product  free  from  lead  and 
other  pigments,  while  it  possesses  a  covering  power  quite 
equal  to  that  of  lead.  Water  only  is  required  for  thinning 
down  the  body  colour,  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb.  of  water 
to  4  lb.  of  Vernolene.  Yernolene  will  keep  for  an  indefin¬ 
ite  period  and  in  all  kinds  of  climates.  For  outside  work  on 
plaster,  brick,  stone,  or  cement,  it  is  very  suitable,  having 
the  advantage  over  oil  paint  of  keeping  its  colour  when 
exposed  to  atmospheric  or  gaseous  influences,  and  drying 
free  from  gloss.  It  has  the  advantage  over  distemper  that 
it  is  of  uniform  depth  of  colour,  wet  or  dry,  does  not  de¬ 
compose  or  scale  off,  does  not  show  damp,  and  can  at 
any  time  be  either  painted  or  varnished.  It  can  be 
decorated  upon  either  in  the  same  material  or  in  tur¬ 
pentine  colours,  and  can  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap 
and  water  rvhen  required,  leaving  the  work  quite  fresh 
again.  On  woodwork  it  can  be  used  as  a  fireproof  paint, 
and  for  stopping  suction.  The  covering  power  of  Verno¬ 
lene,  bulk  for  bulk,  is  said  to  be  equal  to  that  of  genuine 
white-lead,  and,  weight  for  weight,  will  cover  twice  as 
much  surface.  It  is  made  in  scores  of  tints.  Where  a 
permanent  pure  white  is  required,  such  as  for  a  pure  white 
ceiling,  the  ordinary  white  body  colour  is  not  admissible, 
as  it  will  go  slightly  off  colour  in  a  few  weeks,  with  a 
creamy  cast.  There  is  a  special  white  for  this  purpose. 

Hall’s  patent  sanitary  washable  distemper  is  claimed 
to  have  the  following  advantages :  It  sets  extremely 
hard  ;  being  a  strong  disinfectant,  it  is  specially  adapted 
for  use  after  fever  or  other  infectious  cases,  and  it  is  also 
fatal  to  insect  pests  ;  it  is  free  from  caustic  and  alkali, 
and,  if  desired,  can  be  guaranteed  to  contain  J  per  cent. 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAIN  TEES. 


of  cresylic  acid ;  it  will  not  scale  off,  and  paint  or  varnish 
can  be  laid  over  it  without  any  necessity  for  sizing ;  it  is 
non-poisonous,  is  clean  in  working,  and  is  well  adapted 
for  use  in  nurseries,  bedrooms,  or  water-closets ;  white 
ceilings  coated  with  it  will  not  lose  their  colour  through 
the  action  of  sulphur,  as  it  does  not  contain  lead ;  nor  will 
it  crack  or  fall  off  like  ordinary  whitewash,  while,  as  a 
filling  for  cracks  and  holes,  it  will  set  harder  than  plaster- 
of-paris.  It  is  sold  in  air-tight  tins  or  in  bulk,  and  all 
that  is  required  in  mixing  it  for  use  is  a  little  hot  or  cold 
water.  It  is  sold  in  about  seventy  tints,  each  of  which  can 
be  slightly  modified  in  mixing.  This  sanitary  distemper 
may  be  applied  even  to  damp  walls,  and  is  stated  to  be 
perfectly  washable  three  weeks  after  application. 

Torbay  oxide  paint  is  claimed  to  be  a  good  preserva¬ 
tive  for  ironwork.  In  the  opinion  of  many  authorities, 
iron  ought  to  form  the  base  of  any  protective  covering  for 
ironwork.  It  seems  also  necessary  that,  to  attain  the 
proper  degrees  of  adhesiveness,  elasticity,  and  covering 
power  combined,  the  iron  should  not  be  in  excess  of  the 
other  ingredients.  These  qualities  are,  it  is  claimed,  pos¬ 
sessed  by  Torbay  oxide  paint,  the  base  of  which  is  an  oxide 
found  at  Brixham,  Devonshire.  This  paint  does  not  seem 
to  be  affected  by  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  or  by  the 
action  of  sea  water ;  and  it  has  a  remarkable  affinity  for 
and  power  of  protection  to  iron.  Crosbie’ s'  Wolverhamp¬ 
ton  oxide  paints  are  also  well  known. 

Magnite  cold-water  paint  is  sold  in  a  dry  form  to  be 
mixed  for  use  simply  with  cold  water.  If  is  manufactured 
in  colours  and  pure  white,  and  is  intended  for  use  as  an 
economical  paint  for  all  such  purposes  as  mills,  manu¬ 
factories,  warehouses,  railroad  buildings,  barns,  outbuild¬ 
ings,  etc.  There  are  two  qualities — one  for  exterior  use 
and  the  other  for  interior  use.  It  can  be  used  equally 
well  on  stone,  brick,  plaster,  and  wood.  It  is  durable  and 
weather-proof,  and  it  is  claimed  to  be  fire-resisting  in  a 
high  degree.  It  is  stated  that  the  basis  of  the  paint  is 
caseine.  Weather-proof  Magnite  is  intended  entirely  for 
use  out  of  doors,  as  it  will  stand  rain  and  weather  ex¬ 
posure,  and  is  valuable  for  use  on  brick,  stone,  and  wood. 
Interior  Magnite  is  intended  solely  for  interior  work  on 
brick,  stone,  wood,  and  plaster.  It  is  claimed  to  be  very 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


58 


durable,  and  to  be  unaffected  by  gases.  “  Petrol,”  a  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  same  makers,  is  a  special  product  similar 
to  kalsomine  or  water-colours,  but  does  not  contain  animal 
glue,  and  requires  only  cold  water ;  it  is  claimed  to  be  an 
excellent  disinfectant  and  fire  retardant,  and  is  adapted 
for  ceilings  and  decorative  work.  It  can  be  applied  over 
whitewash. 

Randall’s  paris  white  japan  is  claimed  to  have  all  the 
effect  of  white  tiles,  at  considerably  less  cost,  and  is 
superior  to  them  for  sanitary  reasons,  because  it  leaves 
one  continuous  smooth  surface,  without  crevices  affording 
lodgment  to  dust  and  genus.  It  can  be  applied  with  equal 
effect  on  plaster,  cement,  bricks,  wood,  and  iron,  and  is  as 
easily  applied  as  any  other  paint ;  it  is  also  supplied  in 
colours. 

Pittman  paint  will  waterproof  anything,  it  is  claimed, 
from  a  stone  wall  or"  an  iron  girder  down  to  tissue  paper. 
The  paint,  having  a  brilliant  natural  polish,  need  not  be 
varnished,  and  it  will  dry,  in  almost  every  case,  in  less 
than  an  hour ;  and  it  is  claimed  for  it  that  when  once  dry 
and  thoroughly  hardened,  it  will  not  blister,  crack,  or  peel 
off.  It  is  n on-poisonous,  innocuous,  and  inodorous,  and 
can  be  scented  with  any  perfume  desired  by  the  user. 

Morse’s  Calcarium  is  a  washable  distemper  for  internal 
and  external  application,  one  of  the  chief  features  claimed 
for  it  by  the  makers  being  that,  when  the  surface  to  which 
it  is  applied  requires  to  be  redone,  no  washing  off  is  re¬ 
quired,  the  new  colour  being  laid  over  the  old.  This  may, 
of  course,  in  some  instances,  be  a  recommendation ;  but, 
say  for  ceilings  of  living-rooms,  it  is  impossible  to  make 
a  good  job  of  re-distempering,  or  to  get  the  desired  even 
flat  surface,  unless  previous  coats  of  material  are 
thoroughly  washed  off. 

Solignum,  a  stain  and  preservative  for  wood,  is  claimed 
to  protect  wood  from  dry  rot  or  any  other  form  of  decay. 
It  is  stated  to  be  vermin-proof,  prevents  the  boring  of  the 
teredo  in  submerged  timber,  and  resists  the  ravages  of  the 
white  ant.  It  is  a  stain  as  well  as  a  pi'eservative,  being 
made  in  three  shades  of  brown  as  well  as  in  black,  and 
can  be  polished  by  means  of  a  special  varnish.  It  is  also 
claimed  that  Solignum  will  preserve  stonework  and  brick¬ 
work,  and  is  a  remedy  for  damp  walls. 


MATERIALS  USED  BY  PAINTERS. 


59 


Many  fireproof  paints  on  the  market  are  made  simply 
from  silicate  of  soda,  plaster-of-paris,  a  little  glue-size, 
and  the  required  dry  colouring  matter.  AH  the  ingredients 
are  kneaded  together  with  water  into  a  working  consist¬ 
ency,  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  oil  paint.  Another 
method  is  to  mix  equal  parts  of  finely  powdered  asbestos 
and  slaked  lime,  adding  a  little  boiled  oil  as  a  binding 
agent,  and  thinning  the  whole  down  with  silicate  of  soda 
solution.  Mineral  colours  may  be  added  as  desired. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PAINT  MIXING. 

In  mixing  paints,  it  must  always  be  remembered  that 
some  pigments  exert  a  chemical  influence  upon  others,  and 
this  must  be  guarded  against.  All  blues  are  not  chemically 
suitable  for  mixture  with  yellows  or  reds,  nor  all  yellows 
with  reds  ;  indeed,  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  source 
and  affinities  of  pigments  is  almost  a  necessity  to  the 
painter  and  decorator.  Full  information  on  the  subject 
is  given  in  the  companion  volume,  “  Painters’  Oils, 
Colours,  and  Varnishes,”  but  it  will  be  well  to  mention 
here  the  ordinary  pigments  which  it  is  inadvisable  to  mix 
together. 

In  oil  colour,  chrome  is  an  undesirable  pigment,  and 
particularly  is  to  be  avoided  when  compounding  greens 
from  prussian  or  antwerp  blue,  which  pigment  it  would 
eventually  destroy ;  however,  this  advice  is  commonly 
disregarded.  The  best  ordinary  substitute  for  chrome 
in  oil  colour  is  a  bright  yellow  ochre,  and  raw  sienna 
can  also  be  used  with  the  above  blue  pigments 
without  much  detriment  to  either.  In  any  case  where  a 
bright  mixed  green  is  absolutely  necessary,  the  lemon 
chrome  can  be  used  in  conjunction  with  good  ultramarine 
blue  or  indigo. 

In  compounding  the  secondary  colour  of  purple  from 
blues  and  reds,  there  is  less  danger  of  trouble  arising. 
For  oil  painting,  the  best  and  purest  colour  is  obtained  by 
mixing  ultramarine  with  madder  lake,  or  ultramarine  and 
vermilion  will  answer.  Prussian  blue  with  vermilion  gives 
a  deep  purple,  which  may  be  lightened  with  white.  For 
common  purposes,  the  cheap  purple  brown  is  most  use¬ 
ful,  if  required  full  in  strength  ;  but  if  lighter  and  pure 
tints  are  wanted  in  oil  or  distemper,  ultramarine  blue  and 
vermilion  (or,  for  cheapness,  Venetian  red)  are  necessary. 
Prussian  blue  in  water  would  not  suit  so  well,  but  indigo 
could  be  used  if  cost  is  not  a  consideration.  The  remain¬ 
ing  secondary,  orange,  is  a  colour  not  very  often  re- 


PAINT  MIXING. 


Gl 


quired.  Orange  chrome  or  orange  red  is  a  bright  opaque 
pigment,  but  otherwise,  like  all  the  chromes,  is  not  a 
commendable  article.  Burnt  sienna  is  semi-transparent, 
reliable,  and  permanent ;  it  is  a  remarkably  strong  stainer, 
being  like  prussian  blue  in  this  respect.  In  compounding 
orange  colour,  the  reds  and  ochres  already  mentioned  are 
usually  bright  enough ;  yellow  ochre  and  Venetian  red,  ox- 
raw  and  burnt  sienna  together,  give  with  white-lead  a 
good  and  serviceable  variety  of  permanent  orange  and  sal¬ 
mon  tints. 

The  compounding  of  the  third  division  of  mateiial 
colour’s — the  tertiary — from  either  of  the  two  secondaries, 
is  a  subject  that  need  scai’cely  be  dealt  with  here.  The 
pi-actical  student  will  soon  find  the  secondary  pigments  of 
oi-ange  and  green  which  produce  the  tertiary  citrine,  bright 
or  sombre,  as  occasion  requires.  Of  the  remaining  ter- 
tiaries,  russet  and  olive,  prepared  from  the  purple  and 
orange  and  purple  and  green  respectively,  there  is  a  good 
supply  in  the  form  of  simple  pigments.  Notwithstanding, 
therefore,  the  necessity  and  advantage  of  the  worker  being 
able  to  obtain  any  colour  by  the  admixture  of  the  three 
primaries,  it  is  always  more  economical  to  use  a  simple 
article  of  the  desired  colour  when  it  is  to  be  had. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  there  is  any  one  way  of 
mixing  paints  that  is  exactly  right,  while  all  other  methods 
are  wrong.  Every  painter  has  his  own  peculiar  method 
of  mixing.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  simplest  plan  is  to 
irse  pigments  ground  in  oil  instead  of  dry  powder.  With 
a  palette  knife  break  up  the  lead  rather  stiff,  adding  a 
little  oil.  Thin  down  each  paint  until  it  is  slightly  stiffen 
than  the  whole  will  be  when  ready  for  actual  application  ; 
or  if  dry  pigments  be  used,  add  a  little  oil  and  thoroughly 
mix.  The  lead,  zinc„  or  other  base  being  ready,  add  some 
pigment,  and  well  stir.  If  several  pigments  are  re¬ 
quired  to  produce  the  tint,  be  sure  to  add  only  one  at  a 
time,  and  take  great  care  that  each  one  is  thoroughly 
mixed  before  the  next  is  added.  As  a  further  precaution, 
do  not  add  the  pigment  all  at  once,  but  a  little  at  a  time. 
When  it  is  certain  that  a  thorough  admixture  has  been 
effected,  the  next  pigment  may  be  added,  little  by  little. 
Some  pigments,  such  as  prussian  blue,  are  very  strong, 
and  the  addition  of  too  much  will  spoil  the  job  ;  and  while 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  T YORK. 


62 

it  is  always  easy  to  add  a  little  more,  it  is  impossible  to 
take  any  out.  Although  it  takes  longer  to  mix  a  batch 
of  paint  in  this  way,  it  is  a  much  safer  plan.  Of  course,  an 
experienced  man  can  add  the  necessary  amount  of  colours 
without  taking  these  precautions. 

Having  mixed  the  paint,  add  as  much  driers  as  may  be 
necessary,  taking  care  not  to  use-  too  much  ;  then  strain 
the  paint  through  a  fine  wire  strainer.  It  is  well  to  mix 
enough  paint  in  one  batch  to  do  the  whole  of  the  job  in 
hand,  so  that  there  may  be  no  trouble  or  waste  of  time 
in  matching  tints.  Paint  mixed  in  cold  weather  is  very 
likely  to  give  unsatisfactory  results,  because  the  oil  will 


Fig.  40. — Cone  Paint  Mill. 


stiffen  and  be  more  difficult  to  mix  perfectly  with  the 
pigments.  To  remedy  this,  a  gallon  or  so  of  the  oil 
should  be  heated,  and  this  poured  in  will  warm  up  the 
paint,  and  prevent  it  “pulling”  when  applied. 

Nearly  every  paint  shop  will  find  it  convenient  to  have 
a  mechanical  paint  mixer,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds 
on  the  market  available,  at  prices  ranging  from  £2  up¬ 
wards.  Young  &  Marten's  No.  1  A  cone  mill  (Fig. '40) 
has  a  capacity  of  If  cwt.  a  day,  the  hopper  being  7  in.  in 
diameter,  the  grinding  disc  5  in.  in  diameter,  and  the 
total  height  1  ft.  2  in.  The  largest  mill  of  this  type  has  a 
17-in.  hopper,  and  can  grind  10  cwt.  a  day. 

Wright,  Clark  &  Wallis  make  the  small  enamelled  mill 
shown  at  Fig.  41.  The  mixing  cylinder  is  hinged,  as 


PAINT  MIXING. 


63 


shown,  for  convenience  in  pouring  out  the  contents,  this 
process  being  also  facilitated  by  a  lip  in  the  edge  of  the 
cylinder.  The  central  shaft  operated  by  the  handle 
through  the  bevel  gearing  shown  has  four  paddles  (see 
Fig.  42),  which  effectually  mix  the  paint.  Of  course,  when 
the  cylinder  is  in  use  it  stands  flat  upon  its  bed-plate,  as 
in  Fig.  42. 

The  Little  Giant  hand-power  paint-mixer  (Fig.  43), 
made  by  Torrance  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  of  Bitton,  Bristol,  has  a 


Fig.  41. — Paint  Mill  with  Paddles  and  Hinged  Cylinder. 

capacity  of  5  gal.,  which  quantity  it  can  mix  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  mixing  blades  can  be  thrown  up  on  a  hinge 
as  shown  in  Fig.  43,  and  the  drum,  or  container  (measuring 
15  in.  by  10  in.),  can  then  be  removed  for  distributing  the 
pa'int.  Of  course,  in  use  the  blades  shown  in  Fig.  43 
are  working  in  the  container,  the  two  bevel  wheels  then 
being  in  driving  contact. 

White-lead,  which  is  the  principal  pigment  employed 
by  the  house-painter,  may  be  mixed  with  nearly  all  colours 
with  the  exception  of  those  containing  sulphur,  as  lime 
blue,  ultramarine  blue,  and  cadmium  yellow.  Zinc  white 


FRA  G  TICA  L  FA  INTER  S’  I VOR  K. 


64 


may  be  mixed  with  all  other  pigments.  Its  want  of  body 
or  covering  power  is  its  chief  objection. 

Ultramarine,  royal,  and  lime  blues  may  be  com¬ 
pounded  with  zinc  white  without  the  colour  being  affected. 
Brunswick  or  celestial  blue,  which  is  of  a  deep  shade,  may 
be  prepared  in  a  variety  of  pale  and  intermediate  shades 
with  the  addition  of  white-lead,  and  may  be  deepened 
with  prussian  blue  or  drop-black.  It  should  not  be  com¬ 
pounded  with  ultramarine  blues. 

Brunswick  greens  may  be  lightened  with  lemon  chrome 
or  deepened  with  brunswick  and  prussian  blues  ;  with  the 
addition  of  lampblack,  umber,  and  yellow  ochre  in  variable 
proportions,  sage,  bronze,  and  olive  greens  may  be  pro- 


Fig.  42. — Paint  Mill  Paddles. 

duced.  Chrome  greens  may  be  tinted  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  brunswick  greens.  Emerald  green  may  be  lightened 
with  white-lead  or  chrome  yellows  and  deepened  with 
brunswick  or  prussian  blues. 

Chrome  and  zinc  yellows  may  be  lightened  by  the  ad¬ 
dition  of  white-lead  and  zinc  white  and  darkened  with 
orange  chrome,  yellow  ochre,  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna, 
and  the  umbers.  Yellow  ochre  may  be  lightened  with 
chrome  yellow  and  white-lead,  and  deepened  with  raw 
sienna,  raw  and  burnt  umber,  Vandyke  brown,  oxides, 
indian  red,  and  drop-black. 

Yermilion  may  be  lightened  by  adding  white-lead,  zinc 


PAINT  MIXING. 


65 


white,  orange,  and  red-lead,  and  deepened  with  carmine, 
madder  red,  and  most  other  pigments  without  being 
chemically  affected.  Venetian  red  and  the  oxides  may 
be  lightened  with  white-lead,  zinc,  red  and  orange  lead 
and  vermilion,  and  deepened  with  indian  red,  burnt  sienna, 
purple  brown,  blue,  and  ivory-black.  Indian  red  may  be 


Fig.  43. — ‘-Little  Giant”  Paint  Mixer. 

lightened  with  red  oxide,  white-lead,  signal  red,  and 
deepened  into  a  chocolate  or  brown  by  the  addition  of 
ivoryddack  or  drop-black  in  variable  proportions. 

Brown  pigments  as  raw  and  burnt  umbers  may  be 
lightened  by  the  addition  of  white-lead,  zinc  white,  yellow 
ochre,  and  orange  chrome  ;  almost  any  shade  of  grey  or 
drab  may  be  produced  by  mixing  in  variable  proportions. 
Brown  pigments  may  be  deepened  by  the  addition  of 
E 


66 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


drop-  or  ivory-black.  The  above  are  given  in  most  cases 
without  the  addition  of  black,  as  this  deadens  the  tints 
somewhat.  Black  may  be  added  if  required  without 
chemically  affecting  the  pigments. 

The  list  given  below  will  be  found  useful  when  prepar¬ 
ing  tints  and  colours.  As  there  is  no  standardisation  of 
colour,  the  following  proportions  are  given  as  made  from 
the  finest  quality  of  paints  and  colours ;  where  cheaper 
qualities  are  mixed  the  quantities  of  the  ingredients 
should  be  varied  to  suit.  Many  who  prefer  to  mix  their 
own  particular  shade  or  colour,  or  who  do  not  care  to 
stock  a  large  assortment  of  colours,  will  find  it  easy  to 
compound  whatever  shade  they  require  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  comprehensive  formulae : — 

Whites. — Bure  white :  equal  parts  white-lead  and  zinc 
white.  Translucent  white:  white-lead  1  part,  barytes 
10  parts.  Flake  white :  pure  English  white-lead.  Kreni- 
nitz  white :  pure  zinc  oxide  100  parts,  ultramarine  1  part. 
Permanent  white :  finest  barytes  200  parts,  blue  1  part. 
Transparent  white:  oxide  of  zinc  1  part,  barytes  20  parts. 
Clear  white:  white-lead  300  parts,  ultramarine  1  part. 

Yellows. — Primrose :  pale  zinc  chrome.  Lemon :  lemon 
chrome.  Buttercup :  middle  chrome.  Canary :  white-lead 
10  parts,  lemon  chrome  1  part.  Old  gold :  white-lead 
6  parts,  ochre  12  parts,  middle  chrome  3  parts.  Trans¬ 
parent  yellow :  yellow  ochre  1  part,  barytes  10  parts. 
Golden  ochre:  yellow  ochre  5  parts,  lemon  chrome  2 
parts.  Cream  tint :  white-lead  100  parts,  italian  ochre 
3  parts.  Light  stone :  white  lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre 

6  parts.  Middle  stone :  white-lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre 
12  parts.  Dark  stone  :  white-lead  20  parts,  yellow  ochre 
12  parts,  raw  umber  4  parts,  Venetian  red  1  part.  Light 
oak:  white-lead  6  parts,  yellow  ochre  6  parts,  Venetian 
red  2  parts,  umber  1  part.  Dark  oak :  white-lead  2  parts, 
yellow  ochre  3  parts,  Venetian  red  1  part,  umber  3 
parts.  Buff  colour:  white-lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre 

7  parts,  middle  chrome  1  part.  Roman  ochre:  yellow 
ochre  50  parts,  turkey  umber  3  parts.  Ash  colour :  white- 
lead  50  parts,  raw  umber  5  parts,  yellow  ochre  1  part. 
Maple  colour :  white-lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre  3  parts, 
raw  umber  1  part.  Amber  colour,  burnt  umber  3  parts, 
middle  chrome  3  parts,  orange  chrome  8  parts.  Copper 


FAINT  MIXING. 


67 


colour:  white-lead  100  parts,  middle  chrome  19  parts, 
Venetian  red,  umber,  and  green,  3  parts  each.  Leather 
colour :  white-lead  20  parts,  yellow  ochre  5  parts,  Venetian 
red  2  parts.  Bronze  yellow :  white-lead  10  parts,  lemon 
chrome  4  parts,  raw  umber  5  parts.  Golden  yellow : 
middle  chrome  16  parts,  yellow  ochre  1  part.  Italian 
yellow :  yellow  ochre  14  parts,  burnt  umber  1  part.  Hay 
colour:  white-lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre  4  parts,  raw 
umber  4  parts,  deep  green  1  part.  Limestone  colour : 
white-lead  100  parts,  yellow  ochre  1  part,  raw  umber  1  part. 

Beds. — Maroon :  Venetian  red  2  parts,  indian  red  4  parts, 
lampblack  1  part.  Tuscan  red  :  rose  pink  2  parts,  indian 
red  4  parts.  Light  indian  red :  Venetian  red  1  part,  indian 
red  3  parts.  Deep  indian  red :  indian  red  5  parts,  lamp¬ 
black  1  part.  Oriental  red :  rose  madder  2  parts,  orange 
lead  1  part.  Turkish  red :  pale  vermilion  4  parts,  mahogany 
lake  1  part.  Mauve  tint :  white-lead  6  parts,  Prussian 
blue  2  parts,  madder  red  1  part.  Yiolet  tint:  french  ultra- 
marine  14  parts,  crimson  lake  3  parts.  Lavender  tint : 
white-lead  100  parts,  ultramarine  3  parts,  madder  lake 
1  part.  Lilac  tint:  white-lead  100  parts,  ultramarine  1 
part,  rose  madder  1  part.  Terracotta:  white-lead  2  parts, 
Venetian  red  1  part,  burnt  sienna  1  part.  Salmon :  white- 
lead  40  parts,  golden  ochre  5  parts,  Venetian  red  1  part. 
Bright  orange :  orange  chrome  1  part,  orange  lead  2  parts. 
Mahogany :  orange  chrome  10  parts,  burnt  sienna  3  parts 
white-lead  1  part.  Brick  colour:  Venetian  red  2  parts, 
white-lead  1  part.  Rose  tint :  white-lead  16  parts,  crimson 
madder  1  part.  Orange  red :  orange  chrome.  Indian  pink  : 
white-lead  100  parts,  indian  red  3  parts,  rose  madder  1 
part.  Light  pink :  white-lead  100  parts,  rose  madder  4 
parts,  vermilion  1  part.  Flesh  colour :  white-lead  50  parts, 
yellow  ochre  2  parts,  burnt  sienna  1  part.  Purple  tint : 
white-lead  1  part,  ultramarine  1  part,  indian  red  1  part. 
Cherry  red :  rose  madder  1  part,  vermilion  2  parts. 

Blues. — Pure  blue :  zinc  white  20  parts,  english  ultra- 
marine  or  cobalt  blue  2  parts.  Sky  blue :  white-lead  300 
parts,  cobalt  blue  1  part,  prussian  blue  1  part.  Misty 
blue :  white-lead  50  parts,  ultramarine  10  parts,  burnt 
umber  1  part.  Opaque  blue :  zinc  white  1  part,  french 
ultramarine  1  part.  Sea  blue :  white-lead  16  parts,  ultra- 
marine  3  parts,  raw  sienna  2  parts.  Turquoise  blue :  white- 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


68 

lead  20  parts,  ultramarine  2  parts,  light  green  1  part. 
Deep  blue :  prussian  or  ultramarine  blue.  Blue-black : 
ivory-black  40  parts,  prussian  blue  3  parts.  Royal  blue : 
white-lead  1  part,  ultramarine  15  parts.  Azure  blue :  white- 
lead  150  parts,  prussian  blue  1  part.  Oriental  blue :  white- 
lead  100  parts,  prussian  blue  9  parts,  lemon  chrome  1 
part.  Greyish  blue :  white-lead  20  parts,  prussian  blue 
2  parts,  ivory-black  1  part.  Sapphire  blue :  zinc  white  4 
parts,  Chinese  blue  1  part. 

Greens. — Olive  green :  white-lead  12  .  parts,  yellow 
ochre  4  parts,  ivory-black  1  part.  Sage  green :  white- 
lead  30  parts,  light  green  2  parts,  burnt  sienna 

1  part.  Middle  chrome  green :  lemon  chrome  1  part, 
middle  chrome  1  part,  prussian  blue  2  parts.  Pale 
emerald  green :  white-lead  2  parts,  emerald  green  1  part. 
Sea  green :  white-lead  100  parts,  deep  green  4  parts.  Bottle 
green :  light  green  6  parts,  lampblack  1  part.  Pea  green : 
white-lead  100  parts,  lemon  chrome  1  part,  light  green 
13  parts.  Oriental  green :  white-lead  2  parts,  lemon  chrome 

2  parts,  umber  1  part.  Blue  green :  deep  green  7  parts, 
Prussian  blue  1  part.  Myrtle  green :  white-lead  20  parts, 
middle  chrome  7  parts,  ivory-black  1  part.  Bronze  gFeen : 
middle  chrome  2  parts,  raw  umber  5  parts,  burnt  sienna 
1  part,  black  1  part.  Coach  brown :  indian  red  5  parts, 
Grey  green :  terra  verte  10  parts,  raw  umber  1  part,  white- 
lead  1  part.  Citron  green :  white-lead  40  parts,  middle 
chrome  3  parts,  ivory-black  1  part.  Water  green:  white- 
lead  50  parts,  deep  green  2  parts,  yellow  ochre  10  parts. 

Browns. — Golden  brown :  white-lead  20  parts,  yellow 
ochre  3  parts,  burnt  sienna,  1  part.  Snuff  brown :  white- 
lead  9  parts,  orange  chrome  1  part,  burnt  umber  2  parts. 
Foliage  brown:  Vandyke  brown  2  parts,  burnt  sienna 
1  part.  Coffee  brown :  burnt  umber  9  parts,  yellow  ochre 

4  parts,  Venetian  red  1  part.  Cocoanut  brown :  burnt 
umber  4  parts,  yellow  ochre  1  part,  white-lead  1  part. 
Amber  brown :  burnt  umber  9  parts,  middle  chrome  5 
parts,  Venetian  red  3  parts.  Walnut  brown :  burnt  umber 

5  parts,  raw  sienna  1  part.  Italian  brown :  Vandyke 
brown  4  parts,  raw  sienna  1  part.  Pale  brown :  white-lead 

“  4  parts,  burnt  umber  1  part.  Stone  brown :  burnt  umber 
10  parts,  golden  ochre  1  part,  burnt  sienna  2  parts.  Deep 
fawn :  white-lead  10  parts,  burnt  umber  4  parts,  ochre 


PAINT  MIXING. 


69 


1  part.  Purple  brown :  indian  red  8  parts,  burnt  umber 

1  part,  black  1  part.  Coach  brown :  indian  red  5  parts, 
ivory-black  2  parts.  Orange  brown  :  burnt  sienna  5  parts, 
orange  chrome  4  parts.  Light  drab :  white-lead  50  parts, 
burnt  umber  12  parts,  ochre  1  part.  Deep  drab :  white- 
lead  20  parts,  burnt  umber  14  parts,  ochre  2  parts.  Fawn 
tint :  white-lead  60  parts,  burnt  umber  5  parts,  yellow 
ochre  3  parts.  Light  stone :  white-lead  20  parts,  italian 
ochre  1  part.  Tan  colour:  white-lead  20  parts,  burnt 
umber  6  parts,  burnt  sienna  3  parts,  and  yellow  ochre 

2  parts. 

Greys. — Pure  grey  :  raw  turkey  umber  1  part,  ivory- 
black  1  part,  white-lead  40  parts.  Light  trench  grey :  white- 
lead  200  parts,  ivory-black  2  parts,  blue  1  part.  Pearl 
grey :  white-lead  50  parts,  Venetian  red  2  parts,  deep  green 

2  parts.  Dove  grey :  white-lead  50  parts,  ultramarine  blue 
4  parts,  ivory-black  1  part.  Lead  colour :  white-lead  100 
parts,  ivory-black  8  parts.  Slate  colour:  white-lead  100 
parts,  ivory-black  3  parts,  ultramarine  1  part. 

Blacks. — Purple  black :  lampblack  5  parts,  rose  pink  1 
part.  Blue-black :  ivory-black  40  parts,  prussian  blue 

3  parts.  J et  black :  ivory-black  10  parts,  umber  1  part, 
prpssian  blue  1  part.  Olive  black :  vine-black  20  parts, 
yellow  ochre  1  part. 


CHAPTER  V. 


PREPARING  SURFACES  FOR  PAINTING. 

Priming,  the  first  process  preliminary  to  painting,  supplies 
a  foundation  for  the  coats  of  paint.  Linseed  oil  priming 
is  employed  for  wood  and  stucco ;  the  oil  binds,  spirits 
being  used  merely  to  aid  in  carrying  the  filling  part  of  the 
paint  into  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and  to  harden  the  paint. 
In  America  crude  petroleum  is  regarded  as  a  good  sub¬ 
stitute  for  turps  in  priming. 

The  nature  of  the  surface — wood,  tin,  steel,  wrought 
cast,  or  galvanised  iron — governs  the  character  of  the 
priming.  Wood  presents  great  varieties  of  surface.  The 
under  edges  of  doors  should  be  primed  before  they  are 
fixed,  as  they  present  a  surface  of  end-grain  which  absorbs 
water  readily.  This  detail,  though  very  important,  is 
generally  neglected. 

The  best  way  to  deal  with  knots  is  to  cut  them  out  with 
a  saw,  and  joint  a  piece  of  sound  wood  in  ;  or,  if  not  cut 
out,  they  can  be  laid  in  with  japanners’  gold-size  and 
covered  with  leaf-metal,  or  dug  down  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  and  filled  with  hard  stopping.  If  the  knots  are 
very  resinous,  the  blow-lamp  should  be  applied  and  the 
resin  scraped  away  ;  or  the  knots  may  be  pressed  with  a 
hot  iron  or  painted  with  hot  lime,  the  resin  being  scraped 
away  next  day.  It  is  preferable  to  gild  all  hard  knots, 
though  some  painters  merely  give  them  a  coat  of  knotting 
(see  p.  52). 

For  resinous  woods,  the  priming  should  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  turpentine,  which,  also,  is  required  for  hard 
wood,  to  penetrate  the  surface.  In  such  a  case,  an  oil 
priming,  without  turps,  is  liable  to  dry  on  the  surface 
instead  of  sinking  into  the  wood,  and  then  either  shrivels 
or  blisters.  Spongy  wood  requires  more  oil  than  turp¬ 
entine.  Ochre  and  Venetian  red,  being  brittle  pigments, 
do  not  give  good  results  on  hard-grained  or  cross-grained 
wood  ;  they  are  liable,  too,  to  remain  on  the  surface.  All 


PREPARING  SURFACES  FOR  PAINTING. 


71 


priming  should  be  well  brushed  in  and  be  made  thoroughly 
level.  For  soft,  open-grained  wood,  equal  parts  of  ochre 
and  keg  white-lead,  well  ground  up  together  and  thinned 
principally  with  raw  linseed  oil,  make  a  good  priming,  and 
for  hard  wood  good  keg  white-lead,  mixed  with  raw  lin¬ 
seed  oil  and  turps,  in  equal  parts.  For  resinous  woods, 
the  priming  may  consist  of  equal  parts  of  Venetian  red, 
yellow  ochre,  and  white-lead,  made  up  with  about  one- 
third  oil  and  two-thirds  turpentine,  with  a  little  driers  ; 
it  may  be  mixed  with  japanners’  gold-size  and  turps. 

For  priming  new  plaster,  use  white-lead  thinned  with 
raw  linseed  oil  and  allow  to  stand  four  or  five  days.  For 
old  plaster,  driers  and  turps  must  be  added,  and  a  second 
coat  given  within  forty-eight  hours.  For  outside  work, 
boiled  oil  is  employed  instead  of  raw  oil. 

Galvanised  iron  should  be  scrubbed,  brushed,  and 
dusted,  then  washed  in  wrater  containing  5  per  cent,  of 
muriatic  acid.  The  priming  should  then  consist  of  red-lead 
and  boiled  oil ;  or  Venetian  red  may  be  used  with  the  red- 
lead  (equal  parts)  to  tone  down  the  strong  colour  of  the 
red-lead,  or  black  may  be  added  to  produce  a  chocolate 
colour.  In  preparing  metal  surfaces  for  painting,  after 
wrought-iron  or  cast-iron  has  been  scratched  and  brushed, 
it  may  be  further  cleansed  with  a  wash  of  paraffin.  Tin 
must  be  washed  with  strong  soda  first,  to  remove  grease, 
and  the  priming  may  be  as  described  above,  but  with  two- 
thirds  turpentine  and  one-third  linseed  oil.  Two  coats  of 
priming  should  be  given,  with  more  oil  in  the  second  than 
in  the  first.  Priming  should  dry  flat. 

When  red-lead  fails  on  metalwork,  it  is  either  because 
the  lead  is  inherently  bad  or  because  the  mill  scale  or 
rust  has  not  been  removed  from  the  metal ;  or,  again, 
because  the  coat  of  priming  has  been  too  oily,  or  because 
the  work  has  not  been  properly  covered.  A  little  varnish 
or  japanners’  gold-size  helps  priming  to  adhere  to  metal, 
but  only  a  little  should  be  used  ;  for  steel,  varnish  or  japan 
is  essential.  The  judicious  use  of  a  burning-off  lamp  will 
help  to  harden  japanners  on  metalwork.  It  may  be  noted 
that  1  lb.  of  red-lead  and  white-lead  mixed  for  priming 
should  cover  7  yd.  super.  A  very  small  quantity  of  driers 
may  be  used  for  the  priming,  but  it  is  better  not  to  use 
driers  when  there  is  time  enough  for  unaided  drying. 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


Red-lead  priming  is  said  to  injure  varnish  if  applied 
as  a  finishing  coat  to  work ;  it  is  nevertheless  by  far  the 
best  priming  for  ironwork.  It  adheres  firmly  to  the  iron, 
and  does  not  scale,  blister,  or  powder ;  indeed,  mixed  with 
glycerine,  it  will  make  a  first-class  aquatic  cement.  It  is 
therefore  an  excellent  paint  for  railings,  bridges,  glass¬ 
houses,  etc.  Red-lead  does  not  require  driers.  It  hardens 
chemically  when  the  requisite  quantity  of  good  linseed 
oil  is  mixed  with  it,  forming  lineolate  lead-soap,  which  is 
insoluble  in  water  or  air,  and  does  not  decompose  any 
substance  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  This  insoluble 
lineolate  soap  absorbs  about  two-thirds  of  the  oil ;  the 
other  third  will  dry  of  itself.  Red-lead  should  be  used  be¬ 
fore  saponification  occurs — that  is,  as  soon  as  it  has  been 
mixed. 

Stopping,  puttying,  or  surfacing,  and  filling  up,  have 
all  the  same  object,  and  greatly  affect  the  ultimate  finish 
of  the  painted  surface.  If  badly  done,  they  cause  great 
loss  of  time.  Good  painting  depends  largely  upon  proper 
puttying,  for  a  proper  foundation  is  necessary  to  a  satis¬ 
factory  finish.  The  object  of  all  puttying  is  to  fill  up  holes, 
level  the  inequalities  that  are  always  present  more  or  less 
in  woodwork,  and  also  to  fill  irregularities  of  grain. 

Puttying,  or  surfacing,  then  is  the  filling  up  of  holes  and 
cracks,  and  must  not  be  confused  with  filling,  which  is  a 
levelling  up  ;  although,  in  order  to  get  a  level  surface, 
putty  is  sometimes  used  for  filling.  All  small  faults,  nail 
holes,  joints,  cracks,  etc.,  are  filled  up  with  a  stopping 
knife,  the  putty  being  pressed  into  the  holes,  and  all 
levelled  so  as  to  require  very  little  after  labour.  When 
all  defects  are  made  good,  all  the  work  should  be  rubbed 
smooth  with  No.  1  glasspaper.  The  putty  must  be  put  on 
evenly,  neither  too  much  nor  too  little  being  used',  and 
must  be  so  worked  that  very  little  glasspapering  will  be 
required  afterwards  ;  it  must  not  be  switched  on  and  left 
rough,  but  carefully  spread  and  finished  off  without  rim 
at  the  edges,  a  piece  of  rag  being  sometimes  used  to  pre¬ 
vent  this.  The  edges  of  the  puttying  require  special  at¬ 
tention  ;  no'  ridges  should  be  left  to  harden,  because  a 
rough  accumulation  of  putty  is  difficult  to  rub  down  when 
dry. 

The  putty  is  applied  before  the  priming  coat  is  quite 


PREPARING  SURFACES  FOR  PAINTING.  73 

hard ;  the  priming  then  gives  a  key  to  the  putty.  If 
the  putty  is  well  pressed  in,  it  is  less  likely  to  sink  or 
swell.  A  flexible  knife  should  be  used,  and  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  dig  the  edge  of  the  knife  into  the  surround¬ 
ing  paint. 

Distemper  stopping  should  not  be  used  for  oil-painted 
work,  as  it  is  liable  to  crumble. 

The  final  process  in  stopping  consists  in  rubbing  down 
with  a  piece  of  worn  glasspaper  folded  over  a  flat  cork 
or  a  flat  square  of  wood — a  very  useful  and  important 
operation  in  skilled  hands.  Puttying  is  sometimes  done 
on  priming,  and  sometimes  on  second  colour.  The  latter 
gives  more  hold  for  the  putty,  which  should  be  made  more 
elastic  if  used  on  second  colour.  The  priming  contains 
less  pigment  than  the  second  colour,  and,  consequently, 
has  less  affinity  with  putty. 

Putty  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  surrounding  paint,  and  of  the  same  colour. 
It  must  cling  well,  dry  well,  and  be  easily  glasspapered. 
Care  must  therefore  be  taken  that  it  does  not  dry  too 
hard,  because  in  this  case  it  will  contract  in  drying  and 
sink,  leaving  a  depression,  as  well  as  a  crack,  at  the  edge 
of  the  stopping  ;  and  the  putty  should  be  applied  before 
the  ground  has  got  too  hard  for  adhesion.  If  softening  is 
necessary,  a  “  dry  ”  brush  of  paint  must  be  applied. 

White-lead  putty  should  be  used  from  a  small  putty- 
board,  and  not  from  the  palm  of  the  hand,  because  of  its 
poisonous  nature.  Take  a  well-worked  piece  from  this 
board,  and  press  it  into  the  hole  with  the  putty  knife,  the 
superfluous  part  being  then  cut  away  or  smoothed  with  a 
rag. 

Sometimes  putty,  especially  if  made  with  lead  deficient 
in  body,  will  shrink  in  drying.  In  this  case  it  is  well  to 
leave  the  stopping  a  little  above  the  surrounding  paint,  as 
in  a  few  days  it  will  shrink,  and  can  then  be  reputtied 
and  smoothed  with  the  knife. 

A  little  boiled  oil  can  be  used  with  advantage  in  mixing 
putty,  and  white-lead  mixed  with  whiting  is  sometimes 
used.  The  whiting  should  be  dried  first,  as  it  always  con¬ 
tains  a  certain  quantity  of  water ;  but  it  is  liable  to 
crumble.  Keg-lead  mixed  with  dry  white-lead,  being  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  paint,  gives,  if  properly  made,  the 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


74 

best  putty  for  stopping  boles  in  woodwork.  Glaziers’ 
putty,  known  as  soft  putty,  is  sometimes  selected,  but  it 
takes  too  long  to  harden.  Material  for  stopping  can  be 
made  of  dry  white-lead  mixed  to  a  stiff  paste  with 
japanners’  gold-size,  and  a  very  little  turpentine  will  help 
the  gold-size  to  mix  easily  with  the  white-lead.  As,  how¬ 
ever,  the  putty  is  now  of  a  different  nature  from  the  sux*- 
rounding  oil  coat,  it  should  only  be  used  with  colour 
bound  in  japanners’  gold-size. 

In  surfacing,  a  sheet  of  putty  can  be  applied  with  a 
knife,  whilst  filling  is  generally  applied  with  a  bi'ush.  To 
make  what  is  called  draw  putty,  for  filling,  mix  2  parts 
dry  white-lead,  1  part  keg-lead  in  bulk,  add  equal  parts  of 
rubbing  varnish  and  japanners’  gold-size,  and  thin  to  a 
workable  consistency  with  turpentine.  It  should  be  re¬ 
membered  that  the  more  rubbing  varnish  is  added,  the 
harder  the  putty  will  be  to  rub  down.  In  making  this  kind 
of  putty,  the  materials  when  plastic  should  be  well 
pounded  with  a  wooden  mallet,  and  the  more  the  pounding 
the  better  the  putty.  When  putty  for  surfacing  is  made 
partly  with  black  or  ochre,  the  several  ingredients  should 
be  ground  in  a  mill.  Vegetable  black  and  ochre  are  both 
refractory  to  combine  with  oil  by  hand. 

If  a  dent  or  depression  needs  filling  up  on  a  painted 
sui'face,  holes  should  be  made  in  different  directions  with 
a  bradawl,  so  as  to  give  a  key  for  the  stopping  to  cling  to. 

Draw  putty  for  surfacing  can  be  made  of  di’y  white- 
lead  mixed  to  a  slate  colour  with  vegetable  black,  di'iers 
being  added.  It  is  made  workable  by  adding  one-fouidh 
japanners’  gold-size  to  three-fourths  raw  linseed  oil, 
and,  unless  due  care  is  taken,  may  be  made  too  thick  to 
be  applied  with  a  brush  and  yet  too  thin  for  a  knife.  It 
should  then  be  put  on  with  a  stiff  piece  of  stout  leather 
and  rubbed  down  solidly,  and  when  dry  cai’efully  glass- 
papered  ;  it  is  then  bound  down  with  a  coat  of  sharp 
colour. 

Putty  is  of  an  absorbent  nature,  and  is  liable  to 
imbibe  the  oil  and  varnish  applied  to  the  work.  A  smooth, 
thin  glazing  of  putty  levels  surfaces,  and  can  be  sealed 
down  with  a  coat  of  thin  and  oily  paint  after  the  rubbing 
down,  and  thus  prevent  suction. 

Draw  putty  can  also  be  made  of  one-fourth  whiting, 


PREPARING  SURFACES  FOR  PAINTING.  75 

one-fourth  dry-lead,  one-half  keg-lead,  with  equal  parts  of 
rubbing  varnish  and  japanners’  gold-size.  This  material 
can  be  applied  all  over  the  work  with  a  broad-bladed 
putty  knife. 

The  various  methods  of  filling  preparatory  to  painting 
depend  on  the  object  in  view  ;  the  filling  of  new  wood¬ 
work,  the  filling  of  old  damaged  painted  surfaces,  the 
levelling  of  stucco,  and  the  filling  of  woodwork  to  be 
afterwards  only  stained  and  varnished,  all  need  different 
treatment.  With  respect  to  the  filling  for  woodwork,  the 
pigments  and  binders  of  which  the  filling  is  composed 
should  be  chosen  with  a  view  to  the  finished  appearance, 
as  well  as  to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  the  case  of 
stucco,  which  is  limy  in  nature,  and  is  finished  principally 
with  lead,  the  filling  should  partake  of  both  natures  to 
promote  a  union  of  the  paint  with  the  surface.  Wood  that 
is  to  be  stained  and  varnished  should  be  filled  as  far  as 
possible  with  transparent  substances.  In  the  case  of  old 
surfaces,  an  endeavour  should  be  made  to  restore  the 
faded  qualities  of  the  old  paint ;  thus,  in  levelling  old 
paint,  draw  putty  is  laid  on  with  a  trowel  or  a  broad- 
bladed  knife,  and  a  filler  is  generally  applied  with  a  brush ; 
but  for  plain  varnished  wood  the  filler  is  applied  with  a 
cloth. 

Fillings  for  woodwork  that  is  to  be  painted  are  com¬ 
posed  frequently  of  substitutes  for  white-lead,  which  is 
expensive  for  the  purpose,  and  for  this  reason  yellow 
ochre  is  often  used.  A  mixture  of  vegetable  black  and 
white-lead  in  equal  proportions  is  a  good  filling  for  dark- 
coloured  work.  A  filling  commonly  used  for  woodwork 
consists  of  two-thirds  white-lead  and  one-third  sifted 
pumice-stone  dust,  bound  with  japanners’  gold-size  and 
made  workable  with  turpentine.  The  pumice  dust  makes 
the  work  cut  easily  when  pumiced  level.  Filling  for  wood 
should  be  mixed  to  a  heavy  consistency.  When  applied 
with  a  brush,  it  must,  when  set,  be  scraped  with  a  broad 
putty  knife,  held  at  such  an  angle  as  not  to  pull  up  the 
putty,  and  pressed  swiftly  and  firmly  over  the  surface. 
The  filling  must  be  applied  evenly,  and  levelled,  no  bad 
edges  being  left.  Filling  for  woodwork  should  not  be 
rubbed  out  like  paint,  but  be  laid  on  and  smoothed  out. 

Coachmaker’s  fillings  are  sold  as  yellow,  red,  brown, 


76  PRACTICAL  PAINTERS''  WORE. 

and  black  powders,  and  are  bound  with  japanners’  gold- 
size  and  thinned  with  turpentine.  They  are  excellent  for 
all  but  white  and  very  light  grounds,  and  can  be  laid  on 
with  a  knife  or  trowel.  This  must  be  done  as  evenly  as 
possible,  so  that  the  work  will  require  but  little  rubbing 
down.  These  fillings  can  be  used  as  bought,  or  fortified 
with  one-third  by  weight  of  white-lead.  When  the  filling 
is  dry,  it  is  well  to  give  the  work  a  coat  of  sharp  thin 
colour  made  of  Venetian  red,  to  form  a  guide  for  cutting 
down,  as  at  the  finish  all  trace  of  the  red  is  lost.  Another 
way  to  apply  this  filling  is  to  add  half  by  weight  of  tub- 
lead  to  the  powder,  then  work  it  into  a  stiff  paste  with 
turpentine,  and  thin  down  with  equal  parts  of  carriage 
varnish  and  turps.  It  is  applied  with  a  brush,  several 
coats  being  necessary.  Sometimes  a  coat  of  colour  is 
given  between  each  coat  of  filling,  to  bind  it  down  and  give 
a  key  for  the  coats  following.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply 
the  coats  in  different  directions,  one  coat  up  and  down, 
the  next  across,  so  as  to  get  more  filling  with  fewer  coats, 
and  to  avoid  marks,  especially  brush-marks. 

Enough  filling  for  the  complete  job  should  be  made 
at  once,  and  a  day  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  coats 
of  filling,  the  work  being  allowed  to  stand  as  long  as 
possible  before  rubbing  down  ;  a  week  is  about  the  time, 
but  a  longer  interval  should  be  given  if  possible.  The 
smudge  pot  may  be  used  up  in  mixing  the  preparatory 
coats ;  smudge  will  make  tougher  paint  than  freshly 
mixed  colour. 

A  quick  filling  can  be  made  of  lead  1  part,  yellow  ochre 
2  parts,  raw  oil  \  part,  rubbing  varnish  J  part,  turps  \ 
part,  a  teaspoonful  of  japan  to  every  quart.  One  part 
silex  may  be  added,  and  driers  to  dry  the  raw  oil.  When 
keg-lead  is  used,  the  oil  contained  in  it  helps  to  modify 
the  hardness  of  the  japan.  A  little  boiled  oil,  being  a 
good  drier,  is  useful  in  making  up  filling.  Turpentine 
causes  the  japanners’  gold-size  to  mix  better  with  the  oil 
and  pigment. 

Another  filling  is  made  with  equal  parts  of  white-lead 
and  driers.  Mix  it  to  the  consistency  of  paint  with  equal 
parts  of  japanners’  gold-size  and  turpentine,  then  add 
sufficient  dried  whiting  to  make  it  into  a  paste. 

The  clearcole  or  sheepskin  process,  in  which  the  work 


P liE PARING  SUBPAGES  FOR  PAINTING. 


77 


is  not  washed  off,  is  frequently  nothing  more  than  the 
binding  down  of  dirt  and  grease  with  a  liberal  coat  of 
size  and  whiting.  The  surface  is  thus  filled,  and  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  a  few  coats  saved.'  The  only  excuse  (and  that  is 
a  poor  one)  for  using  clearcole  is  that  it  is  serviceable  in 
places  where  the  surface  is  greasy  and  the  paint  therefore 
liable  not  to  dry  ;  even  then  it  is  more  workmanlike  to 
destroy  the  grease,  and  remove  the  dirt  with  soda-and- 
water,  if  the  price  will  not  allow  of  stripping.  The  result 
of  using  whiting  is  that  the  work  soon  powders,  perishes, 
and  cannot  be  cleaned  down. 

The  object  of  sizing  is  to  stop  suction,  and  save  the 
expense  of  oil  and  paint.  It  interposes  between  the  paint 
and  the  wood  a  thin  skin  that  has  no  affinity  either  for 
wood  or  paint,  and  prevents  a  close  combination  of  the 
oil  colour  with  the  wood.  As  -the  size  in  drying  contracts 
to  a  greater  extent  than  the  more  elastic  paint,  and  is 
stronger,  it  draws  the  paint  into  cracks.  On  the  other 
hand,  oil  priming,  by  sinking  into  the  grain,  adheres  to  the 
wood  and  also  unites  with  all  finishing  coats  of  colour.  For 
large  stucco  surfaces,  the  use  of  whiting  is  necessary  on 
account  of  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  surface  to  be 
covered. 

In  the  case  of  a  slightly  cracked  surface,  a  coat  of 
colour  moderately  round  made  slightly  sharp  with  tur¬ 
pentine,  and  mixed  with  plenty  of  driers,  may  be  rubbed  in 
with  pumice-stone.  This  will  level  the  surface  and  fill  the 
cracks.  When  the  price  allowed  for  repainting  will  not 
admit  of  burning  off,  the  old  paint  must  first  be  levelled 
up.  The  work  to  be  repainted  may  perhaps  be  covered 
with  minute  cracks,  with  large  unsightly  fissures  in  some 
places.  In  such  a  case  the  surface  of  dirt  and  grease 
always  existing  in  such  jobs  must  first  be  removed  ;  then 
all  faulty  places  should  be  well  scraped,  and  afterwards 
the  dust  and  dirt  well  brushed  out  of  quirks  and  cracks. 

When  a  badly  cracked  job  has  to  be  filled  up  instead 
of  being  stripped,  it  is  advisable  to  scrub  the  work  by 
means  of  a  short-haired  brush  with  turpentine  instead 
of  water ;  there  is  then  no  chance  of  moisture  getting 
into  and  lurking  unobserved  in  cracks.  Besides  scrub¬ 
bing  with  turps,  the  work  should  be  well  pumiced  and 
glasspapered,  care  being  taken  not  to  rub  the  work  down 


78 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


too  deep.  A  deep  crack  being  wider  at  tire  base  than  at 
the  surface,  it  follows  that  the  more  the  crack  is  rubbed 
down  the  wider  it  will  appear.  The  work  should  then 
have  a  coat  of  colour  mixed  in  half  oil  and  half  turps, 
with  terebene  as  a  drier.  This  coat  should  be  made  up 
sharp  and  thin,  and  well  knocked  into  the  cracks  ;  it  then 
forms  a  key  to  which  the  filling  can  adhere.  Next  putty- 
glaze  with  stiff  putty,  level  with  a  coat  of  colour,  and 
again  cut  down  with  pumice. 

To  make  a  filling  for  a  badly  cracked  job,  take  6  parts 
of  sifted  pumice-stone  dust  with  1  part  of  lampblack  and 
2  parts  of  smudge ;  mix  to  a  stiff  paste  with  5  parts  of 
good  japan  (coach  japan  is  the  best)  and  1  part  of  rubbing 
varnish — that  is,  hard  carriage  varnish.  Thin  to  a  work¬ 
able  consistency  with  turpentine,  give  two  coats,  and  cut 
down  with  pumice-stone.  For  a  cheap  job  some  painters 
take  good  smudge,  mix  it  stiffly  with  dried  whiting,  add 
japanners’  gold-size  and  hard  carriage  varnish,  with  tere¬ 
bene  for  drier,  thin  it  with  turps,  and  cut  it  down  with 
pumice-stone  when  hard. 

In  a  case  of  partial  blistering,  the  blister  may  be  cut 
out  and  the  place  faced  up  with  hard  stopping  putty. 
Powdering  is  caused  by  the  perishing  of  the  paint  material. 
The  perished  part  may  (if  not  too  extensive)  be  revived 
by  applying  a  coat  of  oil  colour,  or  by  rubbing  with  oil 
in  which  a  little  driers  has  been  incorporated.  Scaling  is 
due  to  a  similar  cause,  and  the  only  remedy  is  burning  off. 
There  can  be  no  other  cure  for  scaling,  which  is  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  different  coats  of  paint.  When  a  newly  painted 
surface  blisters,  the  blister,  being  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
depression  below  it,  may  be  pricked,  and  the  skin  pressed 
down  to  its  place.  For  wood  to  be  filled  for  varnishing,  a 
transparent  mineral  is  the  best  base  for  a  filler,  with  turps 
to  help  it  to  penetrate,  varnish  being  employed  to  bind  the 
materials  together.  The  surface  must  be  partly  filled  up 
with  a  material  so  transparent  as  not  to  obscure  the 
natural  colour  and  grain  of  the  wood.  The  filling  should 
be  tinted  to  match  the  wood ;  yellow  ochre  is  a  good  filler 
for  work  to  be  afterwards  varnished.  Take  1  part  of 
barytes  or  silex  or  some  fine-grained  non-absorbent 
material,  2  parts  of  yellow  ochre,  finely  ground,  and  1  part 
of  white-lead.  Silex  is  transparent,  and  white-lead  aids  in 


PREPARING  SURFACES  FOR  PAINTING. 


79 


binding  the  ingredients  together.  A  filler  for  wood  to  be 
stained  and  varnished  can  be  made  of  1  qt.  boiled  linseed 
oil,  |  pt.  of  japanners’  gold-size,  lb.  of  sifted  pumice 
dust,  4  lb.  of  whiting,  and  2  lb.  of  plaster-of  paris.  This 
can  be  thinned  with  turpentine,  and  colour  added.  It 
should  be  rubbed  up  stiffly  with  raw  linseed  oil  to  match 
the  wood.  Another  filler  can  be  made  of  finely  crushed 
gilders’  whiting,  levigated,  and  thoroughly  dried,  then 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  japanners’  gold-size.  Yet  another 
filler  consists  of  equal  quantities  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  raw 
oil,  enough  silicate  or  whiting  to  form  a  paste,  and 
japanners’  gold-size  to  bind  ;  this  is  thinned  with  turps. 
To  apply  the  filler,  rub  it  in  with  a  piece  of  leather  until 
the  wood  is  full,  so  as  to  leave  no  pinholes,  which  are 
caused  by  the  filling  not  stopping  up  the  pores,  so  that 
air  bubbles  come  through.  White  hard  wood  must  not  be 
primed  with  linseed  oil,  which  darkens  it. 


80 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PAINTING  WOODWORK. 

In  painting  new  woodwork,  resin,  knots,  dampness,  un¬ 
evenness  of  surface,  and  even  the  marks  of  the  plane  may 
show,  as  painting  or  varnishing  only  helps  to  bring  any 
unevenness  into  relief.  Therefore,  every  precaution  must 
be  taken  to  stop  out  the  resin  and  the  knots  and  to  free 
the  work  from  moisture,  dirt,  or  grease.  To  make  an 
agreeable  finish  to  the  job,  old  as  well  as  new  woodwork 
requires  facing  with  filling  and  putty.  Too  much  paint, 
however,  is  as  bad  as  too  little,  and  when  there  is  too 
much  paint  on  the  wood,  the  proper  course  is  to  burn  it  off 
and  irepaint. 

If  the  work  is  in  a  fairly  good  condition,  the  first 
step  is  to  wash  well  with  water  in  which  has  been  dis¬ 
solved  a  small  quantity  of  soda,  varying  according  to  the 
amount  of  grease  and  dirt  to  be  removed.  The  surface 
is  then  rubbed  with  a  soft  piece  of  pumice-stone  of  such 
a  shape  as  to  accommodate  itself  readily  to  irregularities. 
The  painter  should  do  this  most  thoroughly  and  carefully, 
holding  the  pumice-stone  lightly  in  the  hand,  and  rubbing 
with  a  circular  motion,  not  up  and  down,  lest  streaks  be 
left  in  the  work.  This  rubbing  removes  the  hard  and  more 
or  less  greasy  surface  of  the  paint.  If  it  is  not  done 
thoroughly,  failure  is  likely  to  result  owing  to  the  grease 
preventing  the  paint  from  drying. 

The  whole  of  the  work,  especially  the  quirks,  mould¬ 
ings,  and  corners,  after  being  well  rinsed  and  dried,  should 
be  finally  dusted  with  a  clean  cloth.  Not  a  particle  of 
dust  must  be  allowed  to  remain  ;  specks  are  apt  to  be 
left  even  after  washing,  and  will  afterwards  work  up  in  the 
paint.  The  soda  employed  for  washing  off,  if  not  neutral¬ 
ised  by  an  acid,  is  liable  to  come  through  the  paint,  even 
through  two  or  three  coats,  in  a  white  film.  Slightly 
diluted  vinegar  in  a  full  coat,  well  worked  into  the  quirks, 
will  help  to  prevent  this. 


PA  IN  TING  1  VOOD  WORK. 


81 


In  rubbing  down  after  burning  off,  work  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  not  against  it. 

For  stripping  paint  right  off,  take  1  lb.  of  American 
pearl-ash  and  3  lb.  of  quicklime.  Slake  the  lime  in  water, 
add  the  pearlash,  mix  to  paste,  water  it  down  to  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  paint,  and  lay  it  over  the  whole  work,  leaving 
it  for  about  twelve  hours  ;  then  scrape  off  the  paint.  Or 
take  equal  quantities  of  soda  and  quicklime  ;  dissolve  the 
soda  in  water,  then  add  the  quicklime.  After  this  has 
been  applied  to  the  work  for  a  short  time,  the  paint  can 
be  scraped  off  and  washed  away  in  warm  water. 

A  surface  slightly  cracked  should  be  treated  with  a  coat 
of  colour  well  rubbed  in  with  the  pumice-stone,  and  one 
that  is  badly  cracked  should  be  washed  with  turps  in¬ 
stead  of  water,  and  well  scrubbed  with  a  short-haired  hog¬ 
hairbrush.  The  use  of  turps  instead  of  water  prevents 
chance  moisture  lurking  in  unobserved  cracks.  Very  badly 
cracked  jobs  require  filling.  Both  old  and  new  work  are 
the  better  for  two  or  three  coats  of  filling. 

Where  the  work  is  very  greasy,  do  not  use  clearcole 
(see  p.  77),  but  go  over  the  spots  with  strong  freshly 
made  limewater ;  let  it  dry,  then  rub  it  off.  If  the  grease 
is  obstinate,  repeat  the  process  until  it  is  entirely  re¬ 
moved  ;  afterwards  thoroughly  wash  the  lime  away  and 
allow  the  work  to  get  dry  before  painting.  It  is  im¬ 
perative  that  all  grease  should  be  removed  from  any  work 
before  attempting  to  paint  it,  as  grease  will  prevent  paint 
from  ever  drying.  To  old  painted  work,  a  good  wash  is 
often  as  good  as  a  coat  of  paint. 

Painting  consists,  speaking  generally,  in  covering  sur¬ 
faces  with  a  thin  coating  of  lead,  stained  by  mixture  with 
pigments  to  an  agreeable  tone.  Whatever  may  be  the 
colour,  it  should  possess  pureness,  brightness,  and  depth 
of  tone  White-lead  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
body  ;  but  there  are  certain  colours  which  possess  body  of 
themselves,  without  the  addition  of  white-lead.  The  prim¬ 
ing  of  the  woodwork  is  often  done  with  a  mixture  of  white- 
lead  and  red-lead.  Some  painters  have  a  great  fancy  for 
red-lead,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  expense  would  more 
often  use  it  exclusively  for  priming.  Although  red-lead 
destroys  varnish,  yet  in  a  general  way  it  forms  an  excellent 
priming.  Lead  being  very  sensitive,  oil  turns  it  brown  and 

p 


82 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORE. 


time  turns  it  yellow.  Where  driers  are  used,  it  is  best  to 
use  such  as  are  akin  to  the  lead,  like  litharge  or  sugar  of 
lead. 

The  purpose  for  which  each  coat  of  paint  is  applied 
should  be  steadily  kept  in  view.  The  first  coat,  or  prim¬ 
ing,  is  to  scop  suction,  so  as  to  provide  a  key  and  a  founda¬ 
tion  for  after  coats ;  the  second,  to  level  up  all  parts  of 
the  surface ;  the  third,  to  give  a  solid  body  to  the  work ; 
the  last  to  impart  an  even  finish. 

The  priming  should  be  a  quick-drying  coat  of  colour, 
and  should  form  a  key  for  the  stopping,  which  would 
otherwise  be  liable  to  scale  off.  Priming,  by  sinking  into 
the  wood,  helps  to  fasten  the  after-coat  of  paint.  It  is 
most  important  that  priming  should  be  a  much  quicker- 
drying  coat  than  the  last  coat ;  for  if  the  last  coat  of 
paint  should  dry  before  the  under-coat,  cracking  will  be 
caused,  for  the  under-coat  will  expand  in  the  endeavour 
to  throw  off  its  moisture,  while  the  coat  on  the  top,  being 
dry,  and  unable  to  expand  any  further,  will  give  way  in 
cracks  through  the  expansion  of  the  under-coat. 

It  is  well  to  mix  some  turps  with  the  priming ;  terebene 
or  patent  driers  would  seem  to  harden  the  work  too  much. 
Break  up  the  lead  in  the  turps,  adding  stainers  before 
straining  ;  then  add  the  oil.  Bed-lead  does  not  require 
driers,  and  the  less  driers  used  with  white-lead  or  yellow 
ochre  priming  the  better.  The  proportion  of  driers  should 
be  about  1^  oz.  to  10  lb.  of  lead,  but  much  depends  upon 
the  time  of  year  and  upon  special  circumstances.  Strain 
all  carefully  through  fine  wire  ;  wipe  off  the  colour  on  the 
strained  side  of  the  strainer  with  a  palette-knife — not  with 
the  sash-tool  with  which  the  colour  has  been  gently  forced 
through.  This  tool,  if  so  used,  should  be  rinsed  out  and 
well  wiped  on  rags  before  being  put  in  the  strained  colour. 

In  painting  a  door,  first  do  the  edge,  and  then  the 
panels  and  mouldings,  working  well  into  these  with  a  small 
tool.  Allow  no  fat  edges  ;  spread  the  work  so  that  an 
equal  coat  is  spread  all  over.  The  first  coat  should  have 
more  turpentine  than  oil  in  it,  so  that  it  may  be  hard 
enough  to  endure  the  stopping  process.  If  the  colour  is 
too  oily,  it  is  apt  to  curl  up  under  the  palette-knife.  The 
priming  coat,  whether  prepared  wholly  with  oil  or  with 
a  large  proportion  of  turps,  is  always  more  or  less  thin, 


PAINTING  WOODWORK. 


83 


according  to  the  closeness  or  openness  of  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  A  very  penetrating  coat  is  formed  with  3  parts  of 
oil  to  1  part  of  turps.  If  the  first  coat  is  oily,  let  the 
second  be  flatfish — that  is  to  say,  there  should  be  more 
oil  in  one  coat,  more  turps  in  another.  The  coats  will  work 
and  combine  better  if  thus  alternated. 

The  second  coat  may  consist  of  one-third  turps ;  the 
third  coat,  half  turps,  half  oil ;  the  fourth  coat,  one-third 
oil,  two-thirds  turps.  When  the  second  coat  is  dry  and 
hard  it  should  be  well  rubbed  down  with  glasspaper,  and 
looked  over  to  see  whether  it  requires  any  further  stop¬ 
ping.  If  the  work  is  very  uneven  it  may  require  from  one 
to  three  coats  of  filling. 

The  whole  of  the  work  should  be  rubbed  smooth,  the 
most  particular  rubbing  being  after  the  second  colour. 

In  laying  the  different  coats,  the  brush  should  be  held 
at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  work,  so  that  only  the 
end  of  the  brush  touches  it.  The  brush  must  not  be  dipped 
too  deeply,  and  colour  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  into 
the  stock  of  the  brush.  The  colour  should  be  spread 
evenly  over  the  whole  surface,  crossed  diagonally,  and 
finished  with  a  light  touch  in  an  up-and-down  direction, 
always  remembering  that  a  brush-mark  left  even  in  the 
first  coat  will  show  in  the  last.  The  last  coat  should  be 
rather  thin. 

For  all  good  work  the  coats  should  be  well  rubbed  out; 
too  much  paint  is  an  error.  The  criterion  of  good  paint¬ 
ing  is  not  quantity,  but  levelness  and  solidity.  Thin  coats 
of  colour  admit  of  more  complete  drying  and  hardening. 
The  third  coat,  mixed  with  rather  less  than  half  turps  and 
a  trifle  more  than  half  oil,  may  be  tinted  to  something  like 
the  colour  required  at  the  finish,  but  should  be  neutral, 
and  slightly  darker  than  the  finishing  colour. 

The  flatting,  which  comes  last,  is  used  thin  with  a  full 
brush,  and  quickly  laid  off  with  a  light  touch  or  else 
stippled.  A  badger-hair  softener  produces  finer  stippling 
for  doors  than  the  ordinary  hog-hair  stippler.  Flatting 
should  be  done  while  the  ground  is  soft  (but  not  wet),  so 
that  the  flattening  may  sink  into  the  ground.  If  the 
ground  colour  were  allowed  to  set  quite  hard  the  flatting 
would  not  sink  into  the  ground  sufficiently  to  bind  the 
colour  as  it  dries  ;  but  of  course  the  ground  must  be  hard 


84 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


enough  to  resist  removal  by  the  flatting.  It  is  best  to 
make  the  flatting  over-night,  so  that  the  sharpness  of  the 
fresh  turps  may  be  modified,  as  turps  always  gets  sluggish 
and  fat  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

In  painting  new  woodwork,  the  stopping-out  of  knots 
and  resinous  parts  is  the  first  consideration  (see  p.  70). 

With  respect  to  the  tone  of  colour,  the  first  effort  is 
to  get  a  solid  colour — to  bring  up  any  patchy  parts  to  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  colour  as  the  rest  of  the  work 
— and  the  putty  may  be  coloured  in  furtherance  of  this 
object.  The  finishing  tone  of  colour  should  be  kept  in 
view  all  the  time. 

When  the  work  requires  a  filling,  this  is  frequently 
made  of  a  preparation  of  japanners'  gold-size,  turps,  and 
yellow  ochre.  Full  information  on  preparing  fillings  is 
given  in  Chapter  Y. 

The  success  in  getting  a  good  surface  is  largely  depend¬ 
ent  on  mixing  everything  properly.  The  puttying  should 
be  done  before  the  priming  part  has  become  too  hard  to 
lay  hold  of  the  putty,  which  otherwise  would  not  stick  to 
the  surface.  Well  pressed  in,  the  putty  is  less  liable  to 
sink  or  swell.  The  common  or  glaziers’  putty  as  sold  in 
the  shops  is  of  no  use  for  this  purpose.  To  make  a  good 
putty,  follow  the  directions  given  on  pp.  53  and  73.  After 
the  puttying  has  been  rubbed  down,  the  work  is  ready  for 
another  coat,  which,  when  dry,  should  be  well  examined 
to  see  that  no  puttying  has  been  missed  ;  it  may  then  be 
well  glasspapered  preparatory  to  the  application  of  the 
third  coat.  Glasspaper,  producing  great  results  in  the 
hands  of  the  coach  painter,  is  but  little  used  by  the  house 
painter.  In  applying  it,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut 
through  the  hard  surface  of  the  paint,  or  the  paper  will 
leave  a  pattern  of  fine  scratches  over  the  surface.  Worn 
glasspaper  will  give  a  much  smoother  surface  than  new 
paper. 

The  workman  who,  to  save  labour,  will  only  use  paper 
with  a  sharp  cut,  fails  to  get  good  results.  When  the  sharp 
cut  has  gone,  he  throws  the  paper  away ;  whereas  paper 
in  this  condition  is  very  useful  to  give  a  final  smooth  rub, 
and  will  leave  the  work  in  prime  condition  for  finishing. 
Well-papered  work  always  presents  a  better  surface  at  the 
finish  than  work  which  has  not  been  papered.  It  levels 


FAINTING  WOODWORK. 


S5 


the  surface,  rubs  off  the  dirt,  and  destroys  nibs  and  any 
irregularities  which,  if  not  papered  off,  no  after-painting 
will  conceal,  whilst  varnishing  only  serves  to  bring  them 
into  prominence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  careless  glass- 
papering  of  woodwork  will  reduce  it  to  such  an  unsightly 
condition  that  no  after-treatment  will  ever  put  it  right. 

An  important  principle  that  should  govern  painting  in 
oil  colour  is,  not  to  overload  the  paint ;  thick  paint  is  very 
apt  to  crack. 

The  flatting  ground  has  a  great  effect  on  the  after- 
painting.  It  is  a  safe  plan  to  flat  on  a  deep  neutral 
ground,  with  a  pure  bright  flatting  colour.  A  ground  of 
one  colour  and  a  flat  of  another — say  a  yellow  tone  on  a 
green  ground — or  a  neutral  colour  with  a  bright  flat  of 
another  colour,  will  produce  bloom  and  quality  not  other¬ 
wise  obtainable.  The  flat  sinks  into  the  ground-colour 
and  brightens  it,  while  the  neutral  tone  of  the  ground¬ 
colour  checks  any  undue  brightness  or  rawness  in  the  flat. 

Blisters  on  painted  woodwork  are  caused  by  the  pre¬ 
sence  of  moisture  of  some  kind,  and  may  arise  from  fat 
under-coats,  from  painting  over  a  damp  surface,  or  from 
water  in  the  wood  or  in  the  brushes.  Resin  in  the  wood 
is  responsible  for  much  of  the  mischief.  Sometimes  the 
blisters  may  be  pricked  and  the  skin  pressed  back  into  its 
place.  The  only  remedy  for  fat  undercoats  is  to  burn 
them  off,  though  sharp  coats  of  colour  will  sometimes 
harden  soft  undercoats.  In  the  case  of  damp,  the  water 
must  first  be  dried  out,  and  then  the  blistered  surface  can 
be  rubbed  down  with  pumice-stone  and  water.  When 
there  is  an  excess  of  resin  in  the  wood,  the  knots  should 
be  treated  as  described  on  p.  70.  In  all  cases  the  cause 
of  the  blistering  should  be  ascertained  and  removed  before 
the  remedy  is  applied. 

Blisters  occur  on  painted  iron  when  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  the  old  coat  has  not  been  removed ;  or  they  may  be 
occasioned  by  an  excess  of  oil  in  the  newly  applied  coat 
of  paint. 

When  blistering  occurs  on  stucco  it  may  be  caused  by 
the  lime  blowing,  in  consequence  of  the  newness  of  the 
piaster  when  the  paint  was  applied ;  or  it  may  arise 
either  from  the  moisture  that  has  not  dried  out  or  from 
moisture  soaking  in. 


86 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


Scaling  is  caused  (1)  by  lack  of  cohesion  between  suc¬ 
cessive  coats  of  paint,  one  coat  perhaps  being  too  hard 
before  the  next  is  applied ;  or  (2)  by  two  contigu¬ 
ous  coats  being  of  such  different  natures  that  union 
is  impossible  ;  (3)  by  using  such  earthy  pigments  as 
have  no  affinity  for  iron ;  (4)  by  neglecting  to  re¬ 
move  all  scale  or  rust  before  painting ;  and  (5),  all  pig¬ 
ments  that  are  not  sufficiently  bound  together  to  resist 
outward  influences  cause  the  paint  on  iron  work  to  decay. 
Scaling  also  occurs  when  old  paint  is,  without  any  prepara¬ 
tion,  covered  with  a  coat  of  new  paint.  To  prevent  scaling, 
the  old  work  should  be  so  treated  that  the  hard  and  greasy 
surface  is  removed,  after  which  sharp  and  penetrating 
coats  of  colour  should  be  given.  The  remedy  for  scaling 
is  to  burn  off  and  repaint.  The  application  of  “  sheep¬ 
skin  ”  will  cause  scaling. 

Powdering  is  either  the  result  of  using  bad  materials, 
or  is  due  to  some  of  the  causes  mentioned  above.  The 
remedy  in  all  these  cases  is  to  scrape,  file,  or  burn  off 
bad  places,  then  scour  with  scratch  brushes  and  paraffin 
oil  and  reprime  and  repaint.  Another  remedy  is  to  rub  up 
the  old  paint  with  thin  colour,  say  two-thirds  oil  and  one- 
third  turpentine,  so  as  to  give  the  old  stuff  new  life. 


87 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PAINTING  IRONWORK. 

Iron  is  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of  oxygen,  or  in 
plain  words'  it  soon  rusts,  and  yet,  since  it  is  so  much 
used  for  outside  work,  it  is  constantly  exposed  to  the 
action  of  damp  and  changes  of  temperature.  It  is  a  great 
conductor  of  heat,  and  it  expands  and  contracts  by  the 
action  of  heat  or  cold.  When  used  for  the  outside  of 
buildings  it  requires,  therefore,  to  be  protected  both  from 
oxygen  and  from  damp.  The  paint  applied  to  it  also 
requires  protection  from  the  action  of  light  and  from  acid 
vapours.  Consequently  several  qualities  are  required  in 
paint  applied  to  ironwork.  The  paint  should  cling,  and 
not  be  liable  to  chip  and  peel  off.  It  must  not  carrode  of 
itself,  whilst  it  should  be  hard  enough  to  resist  damp  ;  still 
it  must  be  elastic  enough  to  withstand  the  action  of 
different  temperatures  on  the  iron,  expanding  and  con¬ 
tracting  with  it.  It  must  resist  water  and  damp,  acids 
and  hard  wear.  The  pigment  used  must  not  be  capable 
of  affecting  the  iron  itself.  The  vehicle  mixed  with  the 
pigment  should  be  able  to  protect  the  iron  and  to  resist 
outside  influences — damp  and  wear,  changes  of  tempera¬ 
ture,  and  deleterious  gases. 

Paint,  if  it  fails  to  preserve  the  ground  to  which  it  is 
applied,  may  actually  help  to  destroy  it ;  and  the  paint 
which  is  suitable  for  one  ground  may  be  unsatisfactory  for 
another.  Frequently  a  chemical  action  is  set  up  between 
pigment  and  vehicle,  or  ground  and  atmosphere.  There  is 
no  actual  chemical  affinity  between  the  pigment  and  the 
vehicle  with  which  it  is  mixed,  paint  being  only  a 
mechanical  mixture.  Chemical  action,  however,  may 
occur  between  pigments  of  opposite  characteristics,  as 
when  crimson  lake  is  mixed  with  white-lead  ;  or  between 
pigment  and  vehicle,  as  linseed  oil  and  vermilion  ;  or  pig¬ 
ment  and  ground,  as  emerald  green  on  a  lime  ground  ;  or 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


h8 

chemical  action  may  be  set  up  in  the  paint  by  atmo¬ 
spheric  influences. 

The.  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  and  water  of  the 
atmosphere  will,  especially  in  thickly  populated  towns, 
destroy  paint  even  after  it  has  hardened,  and  in  spite  of 
vehicle  or  varnish.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  select 
such  pigments  and  vehicles  as  will  most  effectually  com¬ 
bine  for  the  protection  of  the  surface  upon  which  they 
are  laid.  Atmospheric  influences  are  capable  of  destroy¬ 
ing  stone,  iron,  wood,  and  all  such  materials.  Itisnaturally 
impossible,  therefore,  to  find  a  perfectly  indestructible 
paint ;  but  knowledge  of  ingredients  and  materials,  of 
their  behaviour  in  combination,  and  of  their  adaptability 
to  certain  conditions,  should  enable  the  selection  of  the 
paint  that  would  prove  most  durable  in  given  circum¬ 
stances. 

Such  colours  as  indian  red,  Venetian  red,  and  red-lead 
which  have  been  subjected  to  the  greatest  amount  of  heat 
in  their  manufacture — or,  in  other  words,  are  highly 
oxidised — are  the  best  for  outside  work.  A  red-lead  prim¬ 
ing,  with  a  finishing  colour  formed  of  a  pigment  mixed 
with  varnish,  is  the  best  for  ironwork.  Red-lead  is  by  far 
the  best  possible  priming  for  ironwork.  When  repainting 
the  ironwork  there  is  no  need  to  attempt  to  scrape  off  the 
red-lead,  for  it  clings  to  the  iron  firmly,  and  does  not 
scale,  blister,  or  powder.  It  is,  therefore,  an  excellent 
paint  for  railings,  bridges,  glasshouses,  and  other-  work 
that  is  much  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  our  variable 
climate.  Litharge  stands  next  to  red-lead,  and  behaves 
much  in  the  same  way,  but  it  is  not  so  full  of  body. 
Neither  red-lead  nor  litharge  requires  driers  ;  indeed,  the 
painter’s  only  use  for  litharge  is  as  a  drier. 

The  reason  for  using  red-lead  is  that  it  chemically 
hardens  when  only  the  requisite  quantity  of  good  oil  is 
mixed  with  it.  It  then  forms  a  lead  soap,  insoluble  in 
water  or  air,  and  does  not  decompose  anything  it  comes 
in  contact  with.  Red-lead  mixed  with  two-year-old  cold- 
pressed  linseed  oil,  applied  directly  it  is  mixed  (that  is, 
before  saponification  has  set  in),  will  preserve  iron  for 
many  years  from  rust.  The  first  coat  of  red-lead  does 
not  completely  fill  up  the  pores ;  the  second  coat  will 
do  this,  besides  producing  an  enamel-like  surface. 


PAINTING  IRONWORK. 


89 


The  next  staple  colour  to  these  is  turkey  umber  with 
raw  linseed  oil— with  boiled  oil  the  paint  is  liable  to 
crack,  blister,  and  peel  off ;  this  colour  requires  driers. 
For  interior  work,  alizarine,  purpurine,  bismarck  brown, 
and  several  of  the  new  permanent  aniline  colours  might 
be  used.  Oxide  of  manganese  may  be  used  with  the 
red-lead  for  a  finishing  coat ;  the  black  of  the  manganese 
combined  with  the  red  of  the  lead  will  form  a  chocolate ; 
or  it  may  be  used  with  the  oxides  as  a  drier,  and  thus  give 
a  select  tone  of  colour  too.  Vermilion  is  a  colour  which 
withstands  heat  and  moisture.  It  is  a  sulphide  of  mer¬ 
cury,  and  is  not  affected  by  sulphuric  acid  vapours ;  and  it 
does  not  scale  or  crack,  unless  the  pigment  is  either  mixed 
with  bad  oil  or  is  adulterated.  It  must  be  painted  flat  and 
varnished  afterwards,  as  oil  itself  does  not  agree  with  it. 
An  iron  black  may  be  made  from  ground  sulphate  of  iron. 
The  oxides  vary  from  a  deep  scarlet  to  a  dark  violet. 

The  above-mentioned  pigments  give  a  range  of  colours 
which,  being  of  similar  nature,  will  mix  without  detri¬ 
ment.  If  a  good  priming  is  secured,  say  of  red-lead,  a 
range  of  permanent  colour  of  the  same  nature,  protected 
with  varnish,  will  give  permanence,  and  a  few  brilliant 
colours  will  give  a  decorative  effect.  Such  colours  are 
necessary,  for  instance,  for  application  to  the  ornamental 
ironwork  of  churches,  for  the  balusters  or  rails  of  stair¬ 
cases,  etc. 

An  objection  has  been  raised  to  the  oxides  of  iron,  the 
opinion  being  expressed  that,  rust  being  an  oxide  of  iron, 
these  colours  only  serve  still  further  to  oxidise  the  iron. 
Experience  proves,  however,  that  indian  red,  Venetian 
red,  etc.,  which  are  made  at  so  high  a  temperature  as  to 
prevent  any  further  oxidisation,  stand  very  well,  al¬ 
though  they  are  not  so  preservative  as  red-lead,  which 
excels  all  other  pigments  for  ironwork. 

White-lead  (basic  carbonate  of  lead)  is  slightly  soluble 
in  water.  With  the  help  of  carbonic  acid  in  damp  places, 
it  sets  the  iron  rusting.  Iron  has  a  stronger  affinity  for 
oxygen  than  has  white-lead  ;  it  decomposes  the  carbonic 
acid  in  it,  the  iron  taking  the  oxygen,  and  thus  forming 
rust  underneath  the  paint.  White-lead  has  but  little 
affinity  for  oil ;  it  is  unable  to  resist  the  slow  action  of 
ammonia  and  damp.  White-lead  has  a  tendency  to  oxidise 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


90 

the  oil'  too  quickly.  The  darkening  of  oil  paint  is  ex¬ 
plained  by  the  fact  that  oil  partly  takes  up  oxygen  from 
the  pigment,  thus  burning  or  charring  it. 

Zinc  white  is  not  suitable  for  outside  work ;  it  is  liable 
to  scale,  and  does  not  unite  well  with  the  oil.  It  takes  up 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and  soon  powders.  Zinc  white, 
whenever  used,  requires  more  oil  or  binding  than  white- 
lead. 

Iron  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  before  being  painted. 
One  plan  is  to  submit  it  to  the  action  of  water  containing 
from  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  then  rinse  with  cold 
water,  afterwards  scouring  with  dry  sand,  and  finally 
brushing  the  sand  thoroughly  away.  Wire  brushes  are 
useful  for  ironwork.  Paraffin  oil,  well  scrubbed  in,  will 
cleanse  iron.  Beat  the  work  with  an  iron  rod  so.  as  to 
detach  the  loose  paint,  and  use  the  file  and  the  knife  where 
the  paint  clings  tenaciously.  After  being  scrubbed  with  a 
wire  brush,  galvanised  iron  should  be  washed  with  diluted 
muriatic  acid,  the  proportions  being  5  of  acid  to  1  of  water. 

A  coat  or  two  of  varnish  greatly  helps  to  give  per¬ 
manence  and  lustre  to  iron.  Encaustic  varnish  is  used 
for  inside  work  ;  it  does  not  show  up  the  inequalities  of 
the  ironwork,  and  imparts  a  refined  appearance,  but  is 
never  used  for  outside  ironwork. 

When  rusted  iron  is  coated  with  oil  paint,  it  for  a  time 
appears  as  if  the  rusting  process  had  ceased  ;  but  this  is 
by  no  means  the  case.  Chemical  action  is  set  up,  forming 
a  monoxide  of  iron,  which  has  a  greater  affinity  for  oleic 
acid  than  any  other  known  compound.  This  unites  with 
the  oil-acid  in  the  paint,  and  thus  forms  a  conductor  that 
enables  damp  to  enter.  The  corrosion  is  carried  on  under¬ 
neath  the  paint,  which  eventually  peels  off,  when  the  sur¬ 
face  underneath  is  found  to  be  much  further  rusted  than 
when  first  the  paint  was  applied.  What  is  wanted  for 
the  protection  of  iron  is  an  elastic  paint  which  will  not 
convey  damp  or  give  up  oxygen  to  the  iron.  The  pigments 
which  not  only  possess  these  qualities,  but  are  also  really 
decorative,  are  fewer  for  iron  than  for  any  other  surface. 

The  use  of  asphaltum  and  coal  tar  for  painting  outdoor 
ironwork,  such  as  bridges,  etc.,  is  open  to  objection,  be¬ 
cause  these  substances  have  a  tendency  to  melt,  and  even 
to  run,  when  exposed  to  either  ordinary  heat  or  the  direct 


FA  IN  TING  IE  ON  WO  E  K. 


91 


action  of  the  sun.  This  kind  of  paint  material  is  liable  to 
gather  at  the  edges.  A  black  paint  frequently  used  for 
ironwork  consists  of  plumbago  and  coal  tar.  Equal  parts 
of  asphaltum  and  resin  dissolved  in  turpentine  is  also  a 
useful  mixture.  Jay’s  metallic  paint  is  made  by  breaking 
resin  into  small  pieces  and  dissolving  in  turpentine  till  the 
compound  is  of  the  consistency  of  treacle.  The  colouring 
pigments,  such  as  oxide  of  zinc,  oxide  of  iron,  sulphate 
of  barytes,  or  red-lead,  are  then  made  into  a  paste  with 
boiled  linseed  oil  and  added. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


PAINTING  STUCCO  OR  PLASTER  ;  DISTEMPERING  AND  WHITE¬ 
WASHING. 

Oe  the  several  kinds  of  surfaces  to  which  paint  is  applied, 
stucco  is  that  which  presents  the  greatest  total  area  and 
has  engaged  the  greatest  variety  of  methods.  Among  the 
many  processes  employed — such  as  oil  paint,  distemper, 
fresco,  encaustic,  water-glass,  and  tempera — the  two  now 
in  most  general  use  for  the  preservation  of  plaster  are 
oil-painting  and  distemper. 

If  lime  stucco  is  used  on  the  outside  of  buildings,  it 
must  be  protected  by  paint.  Roman  cement  is  useful  for 
all  stucco  work,  and  can  be  painted.  Portland  cement  is 
also  invaluable  for  outside  work.  For  inside  work, 
Keene’s  cement  is  commonly  used.  Surfaces  originally 
executed  in  plasters’  putty,  and  cracked  by  time  and  wear, 
are  generally  mended  with  Keene’s  cement.  This  excel¬ 
lent  plaster  is  made  from  gypsum  or  from  plaster-of-paris, 
which  is  first  steeped  in  a  solution  of  alum,  then  calcined, 
and  finally  reduced  to  a  powder.  Asa  stucco,  it  is  capable 
of  a  high  polish.  The  mineral  colours  can  be  mixed  with 
it,  if  previously  rubbed  up  with  water.  Imitations  of  in¬ 
laid  marble  and  scagliola  can  be  executed  with  Keene’s 
cement,  coloured.  This  cement,  when  used  for  interiors, 
should  be  painted  within  twelve  hours  of  its  application. 
Parian  cement  is  somewhat  similar  to  Keene’s.  All  these 
cements  are  comparatively  harmless  to  lead,  but  lead  has 
no  chemical  or  mechanical  affinity  for  any  of  them,  and 
merely  clings  to  the  different  surfaces  by  the  action  of  the 
oil. 

New  work  in  plaster  or  stucco  must  be  thoroughly  dry 
if  it  has  to  be  painted  in  oil  colour ;  and  it  sometimes 
takes  three  years  (in  the  case  of  a  new  building)  for  the 
cement  to  get  thoroughly  dry. 

In  new  plaster  the  free  lime  always  present  is  very 
detrimental  to  paint ;  but  time  changes  it  into  carbonate 
of  lime,  which  is  generally  inoffensive. 


PAINTING  STUCCO  OR  PLASTER. 


93 


If,  however,  new  plaster  be  washed  with  dilute  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  (the  strength  of  the  acid  will  depend  on  the 
amount  of  heat  in  the  plaster),  it  will  turn  the  free  lime 
to  sulphate  of  lime,  thus  accomplishing  quickly  what  time 
would  effect  gradually.  Time,  however,  does  more  than 
this ;  it  neutralises  the  lime,  with  which  in  plaster  a  cer¬ 
tain  amount  of  clay  is  present,  and  in  course  of  time  a 
combination  of  silica,  lime,  and  alumina  is  formed,  which 
combination  is  chemically  neutral  and  inoperative  as  re¬ 
gards  the  paint.  A  process  has  been  patented  by  which  the 
lime,  by  treatment  with  fluoric  acid,  is  converted  into 
felspar,  thus  forming  an  insoluble  and  damp-proof  com¬ 
pound. 

In  stopping  up  holes  in  an  old  ceiling  with  size  and 
whiting,  care  must  be  taken  to  make  allowance  for  shrink¬ 
age  in  drying.  This  kind  of  stopping  is  very  apt  to  fall 
out,  and  in  drying  will  contract  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
leave  cracks  round  the  places  mended.  Ceilings  are  far 
more  successfully  mended  with  chalk-lime  putty,  that 
being  the  material  of  which  the  ceiling  is  composed.  The 
putty  should  be  mixed  with  water  only,  and  not  size, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  coat  laid  on  the  surface  after  the 
mending  to  bring  it  up  to  the  condition  of  the  rest  of  the 
surface.  Plasterers’  putty,  with  Keene’s  cement  as  a 
drier,  might  be  used. 

For  mending  surfaces  preparatory  to  distempering 
them,  Keene’s  cement  is  generally  used,  mainly  because  it 
so  soon  forms  a  surface  that  can  be  distempered.  If  the 
ceiling  should  be  mended  with  white-lime  putty  and  sand,  it 
would  take  at  least  a  week  to  dry,  and  meanwhile,  of 
course,  the  work  could  not  proceed.  With  Keene’s  cement 
if  the  surface  behind  is  dry,  or  there  is  open  lath-work 
behind  the  plaster,  the  moisture  speedily  evaporates, 
leaving  the  surface  ready  for  the  flatting,  of  which  one 
coat  is  sufficient.  Painting  should  immediately  follow,  for 
if  the  cement  is  left  for  any  time  exceeding  twelve  hours 
the  damp  returns  to  the  surface  and  repels  the  paint. 
Only  one  coat  of  flatting  is  then  necessary.  Plaster-of- 
paris  alone  is  also  used.  A  somewhat  skilful  hand  is 
needed  to  spread  these  quickly  drying  materials  level 
before  they  set. 

In  stopping  a  ceiling,  first  wet  the  hole  thoroughly,  then 


94 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


press  the  plaster  well  into  the  hole  till  it  fills  up  level  with 
the  surrounding  surface.  A  large  hole  will  require  a  part 
of  the  old  ceiling  to  be  cut  away  so  as  to  form  an  edge, 
bevelled  inwards  to  hold  the  piece  of  new  plaster  in  its 
place.  (Sometimes  the  ,  plaster  is  mixed  with  warm  glue- 
size,  but  this  cannot  be  recommended,  as  it  causes  unequal 
suction.  Old  and  cracked  ceilings  are  lined  by  pasting 
paper  over  the  entire  surface.  The  ceiling  must  be  quite 
free  from  old  paint  or  shellac  before  it  is  lined,  or  the 
painted  paper  will  come  away.  The  ceiling  should  be 
sized,  the  paper  well  soaked  with  paste,  and  the  edges 
well  rubbed,  or  they  will  curl  after  being  distempered. 

To  make  a  sound  job,  plastered  surfaces — especially 
cornices — are  sometimes  given  two  coats  of  paint,  the 
first  oily,  the  second  flat,  to  form  a  ground,  which  is 
afterwards  distempered  ;  so  that  when  the  distemper  re¬ 
quires  renewing,  it  is  easy  to  wash  it  off  without  damaging 
the  plaster.  For  securing  a  similar  result  with  a  ceiling, 
a  good  plan,  when  the  price  will  admit,  is  to  put  on  a 
double  lining  by  pasting  paper  in  opposite  ways  and 
afterwards  to  paint  it.  For  this  purpose  lining-paper  is 
used ;  but  cartridge-paper  will  be  found  to  be  better,  but¬ 
ting  the  edges  and  afterwards  rubbing  them  down  with 
glasspaper.  For  work  intended  for  decoration  it  is  ad¬ 
visable  not  to  paint  the  paper,  but  to  clearcole  it  (see  p. 
77),  and  then  distemper  it  in  the  usual  way.  Painting 
prevents  absorption ;  and  one  of  the  good  qualities  of 
distemper  is  that,  aided  by  the  plaster  beneath,  it  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  and  easily  dries  out.  again. 
The  stains  in  an  old  ceiling  may  be  removed  by  washing  it 
with  vinegar  or  sulphuric  acid.  A  coat  of  raw  plaster, 
allowed  to  dry  and  then  washed  off,  will  remove  smoke 
stains. 

Gathering  is  caused  by  unequal  suction  in  the  work, 
either  from  the  varying  nature  of  the  ground  or  through 
insufficient  sizing.  Size  should  make  up  one-fifth  of  the 
clearcole.  In  the  case  of  an  old  ceiling,  if  one  coat  is 
found  insufficient  an  extra  chilled  coat  may  be  required. 
This  must  be  well  sized  before  a  coat  of  distemper  is  laid. 
By  looking  towards  the  light,  a  very  slight  sparkle,  appear¬ 
ing  over  the  entire  surface,  will  tell  that  the  work  is  ready 
for  the  final  coat.  The  final  coat  should  contain  a  suffi- 


PAINTING  STUCCO  OB  PLASTER. 


95 


cient  body  of  colour,  should  be  stiff  when  set,  and  be  well 
beaten  up  in  the  pail  before  being  applied.  In  new  houses 
distemper  is  adopted  until  the  house  is  dry  enough  for  the 
walls  and  ceilings  to  be  painted. 

The  colours  in  distemper  are  rather  difficult  to  fix,  and 
on  account  of  the  change  which  takes  place  in  drying, 
time  is  lost  in  waiting  for  the  tone  to  develop.  It  is  the 
common  practice  to  try  the  colours  on  a  piece  of  paper 
first ;  but  in  order  to  see  the  full  effect  of  a  colour  it  must 
be  tried  in  its  own  place.  Plaster  tends  to  absorb 
moisture,  but  upon  paint  the  moisture  goes  no  further  than 
the  surface,  and  gives  but  little  trouble.  In  distemper 
painting  there  is  but  a  limited  range  of  suitable  lime-re¬ 
sisting  colours  ;  those  outside  this  range  fade  and  go  black, 
and  when  ignorantly  selected  for  this  class  of  work  set  up 
curious  chemical  action,  causing  many  a  simple  piece  of 
distemper  to  go  wrong. 

The  suitable  colours  are  as  follows : — Whiting,  naples 
yellow,  yellow  ochre,  roman  ochre,  brown  ochre,  raw 
sienna,  burnt  sienna,  Chinese  vermilion,  light  red,  indian 
red,  burnt  copperas,  terre-verte,  cobalt  green,  raw  umber, 
burnt  umber,  vandyke  brown,  cologne  earth,  ultramarine, 
cobalt,  royal  smalt,  ivory-black,  and  charcoal.  Zinc  white 
can  also  be  used  in  distemper.  Venetian  red  is  a  very  use¬ 
ful  and  permanent  colour ;  indian  red  should  not  be  mixed 
with  white,  but  may  be  modified  with  chrome.  Madder 
lake  works,  and  will  last,  upon  lime  surfaces.  Lime-blue 
is  cheap  and  permanent.  Blue  verditer  is  a  good  blue  for 
artificial  light. 

The  distemper  paint-pots  should  be  of  earthenware,  but 
either  zinc  or  wooden  pails  may  be  used,  and  the  palette- 
knives  may  be  of  wood  or  of  ivory,  but  not  of  iron.  In 
mixing  white  distemper,  whiting  should  be  placed  in  a  pail, 
and  just  covered  with  water  and  allowed  to  soak  for  an 
hour.  Then  the  superfluous  water  is  poured  off  and  hot 
size  added,  care  having  been  taken  that  the  size  has  not 
been  boiled,  but  merely  melted. 

In  mixing  distemper,  bare  the  arms  to  the  elbows,  and, 
plunging  them  into  the  pail,  break  up  all  the  lumps  with 
the  hands — for,  unlike  lead,  whiting  is  non-poisonous.  The 
distemper,  when  mixed,  should  always  be  strained  through 
paper-hangers’  canvas.  In  the  mixing  a  little  blue-black 


96 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


must  be  added,  to  prevent  the  distemper  white  from 
changing  colour.  Any  colouring  matter  mixed  with  the 
white  should  be  added  before  the  straining  takes  place. 
Double  size,  or  Cannon’s  concentrated  glue-size,  is  used 
for  distemper.  The  glue-size  should  be  soaked  overnight 
in  water,  so  that  it  may  be  of  the  consistency  of  jelly. 
The  size  should  be  put  in  a  clean  vessel  with  some  water, 
to  prevent  it  charring,  and  melted  at  a  slow  fire  with  fre¬ 
quent  stirring. 

A  little  alum  added  to  the  colour  is  very  beneficial  to 
the  distemper,  causing  it  to  lie  level.  The  colours  should 
be  well  bound  with  size.  When  cold,  the  distemper  should 
be  of  the  consistency  of  thick  paste.  Should  it  then  turo 
out  to  be  too  thick,  it  should  be  well  beaten  up  with  a 
little  water.  When  the  whiting  has  been  reduced  to  a  soft 
paste,  many  painters  add  2  oz.  of  alum  to  an  equal  quan¬ 
tity  of  soft  soap  dissolved  in  water  before  the  latter  is 
added  to  the  colour.  Soft  soap,  however,  is  a  doubtful 
benefit,  though  alum  is  of  decided  advantage. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
it  is  better  to  use  melted  size  or  jellied  size  to  mix  with 
the  distemper.  If  the  size  is  moderately  hot  it  mixes 
thoroughly  with  the  whiting,  and  if  placed  in  a  cool  situa¬ 
tion  will  form  into  a  jelly  in  the  course  of  one  night. 
When  the  size  has  been  used  in  the  jellied  state  the  dis¬ 
temper  can  be  applied  immediately. 

Painting  out  stains  in  old  ceilings  with  a  couple  of 
coats  of  flatting  is  seldom  effectual,  the  mended  parts 
showing  after  the  work  is  finished.  This  occurs  from  un¬ 
equal  suction.  The  distemper  coat  can  be  usually  applied 
whilst  the  alum-size  is  wet ;  but,  in  the  case  of  a  very 
badly  stained  ceiling,  it  is  best  to  let  the  alum-size  dry. 
The  stain,  having  been  neutralised,  should  be  touched  up 
with  the  old  distemper  that  has  been  washed  off.  This 
will  give  suction  sufficient  to  prevent  the  painted  part 
showing.  When,  even  after  being  washed  with  acid,  the 
stains  are  too  strong,  a  coat  of  spirit  varnish  or  knotting 
should  be  applied  after  the  wash  is  quite  dry.  When  the 
plaster  is  in  the  state  technically  termed  hot,  the  alum-size 
will  cool  it.  The  alum  should  be  melted  and  put  cold  to 
the  soaked  whiting,  and  may  then  be  added  to  the  melted 
size  for  clearcole. 


PAINTING  STUCCO  OB  PLASTEIi. 


97 


The  plasterer  seldom  leaves  his  surface  level  enough 
for  painting,  and  paint  has  a  tendency  to  show  up  such 
defects.  The  necessary  filling-up  used  to  be  done  with 
distemper  made  with  just  enough  size  to  allow  of  its 
being  rubbed  down  easily.  This  was  a  dirty  job,  and  has 
for  some  time  been  almost  entirely  discarded,  and  a  filling 
composed  as  follows  has  taken  its  place : — Equal  parts  of 
white-lead  and  driers,  or  2  parts  of  white-lead  and  1  part 
of  driers,  combined  with  3  parts  of  japanners’  gold-size 
and  turps.  This  is  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  paint,  then 
sufficient  whiting  is  added  to  make  a  paste  of  it.  A 
slender  flexible  knife,  in  skilled  hands,  can  with  this  filling 
produce  a  surface  which,  when  rubbed  down,  is  almost  as 
hard  and  as  smooth  as  marble. 

In  preparing  a  surface  of  plaster  for  painting  in  oil, 
the  stopping  is  composed  of  whiting  and  plaster-of-paris, 
made  into  a  stiff  paste,  which,  when  dry,  is  rubbed  down 
in  the  usual  way  with  glasspaper  on  a  square  cork. 

Distemper  does  not  darken  with  time,  and  is  easily 
cleaned  with  bread. 

The  two-tied  hog-hair  brushes  are  used  for  large  sur¬ 
faces,  a  smaller  round  brush  for  smaller  areas,  and  sash- 
tools  for  cornices.  The  brushes  should  never  be  allowed 
to  get  dry  with  distemper  on  them.  Immediately  after  use 
they  should  be  thoroughly  washed  in  warm  water,  if  pos¬ 
sible,  and  the  hairs  arranged  so  that  they  will  not  dry 
out  of  place  or  be  turned. 

Distemper  is  a  carbonate  of  lime,  and,  provided  that 
the  surface  upon  which  it  is  to  be  used  has  been  deprived 
of  unequal  suction,  it  will  present,  in  interior  work,  an 
even,  luminous,  and  lasting  effect.  The  main  reasons  for 
employing  it  upon  ceilings  are  that  distemper  produces  an 
effect  which  is  lighter  and  clearer  than  that  of  paint,  and 
can  also  be  easily  renewed  when  discoloured.  One  of  the 
great  faults  in  the  use  of  distemper  consists  in  “  gather¬ 
ing  ” — that  is,  from  different  positions  it  appears  to  be  of 
varying  texture,  and  thus  looks  rather  patchy.  This  effect 
arises  principally  from  unequal  suction.  Whilst,  however, 
in  some  cases  the  ground  should  not  be  altogether  non- 
absorbent,  as  a  certain  amount  of  absorbing  quality  would 
give  the  colour  a  better  chance  of  clinging,  the  suction 
must  be  even  all  over.  In  the  case  of  paint,  the  upper 


m 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


coat  should  lay  hold  of  the  coat  underneath.  With  dis¬ 
temper  tins  resmt  is  ensured  by  the  moist  character  ot  the 
colour. 

Another  method  of  preparing  whitewash  may  here  be 
given,  break  four  balls  of  wlnting  into  large  pieces,  place 
them  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  them,  and  allow  to  stand 
for  a  night.  Then  pour  off  all  the  free  water,  mix  the 
whiting  until  it  assumes  the  consistency  of  paste,  add 
about  a  tablespoonful  of  dry  ultramarine,  and  stir  it  well 
in.  Then  dissolve  2  lb.  of  Young’s  patent  size  in  sufficient 
water  to  cover  it,  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire,  stirring  con¬ 
stantly,  and  allowing  it  neither  to  boil  nor  to  bum.  When 
it  is  thoroughly  dissolved,  pour  it  on  the  whiting,  and  mix 
well.  Set  the  mixture  aside  until  it  turns  to  a  jelly,  and, 
with  a  distemper  brush,  rub  it  through  a  coarse  piece  of 
canvas  stretched  over  a  pail.  Lay  it  on  with  a  large  flat 
brush,  freely,  quickly,  lightly,  moving  the  brush  in  all 
directions,  but  without  splashing.  Keep  the  stuff  well 
stirred  in  the  bucket.  Rather  more  size  should  be  used  in 
summer  than  in  winter ;  and,  if  the  weather  is  very  warm, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  stand  the  pail  in  cold  water  before 
the  size  will  settle  into  jelly. 

The  aim  in  distempering  is  to  produce  a  solid  dead 
coating,  to  ensure  which  it  is  necessary  that  the  edge  of 
the  work  should  be  kept  “  alive  ”  ;  if  the  ceiling  sucks  very 
badly,  this  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible  ;  so  in  order 
to  prevent  the  patchy  appearance  which  would  otherwise 
result,  the  surface  is  treated  to  a  preliminary  coat  of  size, 
termed  clearcole,  a  little  whiting  being  sometimes  added. 
This  will  stop  excessive  suction,  and  give  the  work  a 
chance  to  dry  evenly. 

A  superior  whitewash  for  ceilings  is  made  by  placing 
in  a  bucket  or  other  suitable  vessel  1  stone  of  paris 
white  (best  whiting)  and  1  lb.  of  zinc  oxide,  and  making 
them  into  a  soft  paste  with  water.  Melt  in  another  vessel 
2  lb.  of  pale  russian  glue  in  \  gal.  of  water,  and  stir  this 
into  the  paste  ;  then  with  water  thin  down  1  oz.  of  blue, 
and  place  in  the  wash.  After  being  thoroughly  mixed,  the 
whitewash  is  ready  for  use.  The  addition  of  zinc  oxide 
to  the  wash  makes  it  more  expensive,  but  gives  far  better 
results  than  whiting  alone.  The  wash  must  not  be  applied 
too  thick,  as  this  is  often  the  cause  of  the  work  rubbing 


DISTEMPERING  AND  WHITEWASHING. 


99 


up  and  drying  patchy.  Terre  alba  is  also  used  for  both 
wash  and  distemper  work ;  but  this  is  not  recommended, 
as  it  has  very  little  covering  properties,  thus  making  it 
necessary  for  the  work  to  be  given  two  coats. 

In  distempering  on  wall-paper,  first  brush  the  walls 
down  with  a  hard  brush  and  make  good  any  holes  or 
cracks  in  the  plaster.  Melt  some  ordinary  size  (half  size 
and  half  water)  and  go  over  the  walls  carefully,  fixing  any 
paper  that  might  be  loose  or  torn.  This  will  stop  the 
suction  that  the  paper  naturally  has,  and  will  enable  any 
defects  to  be  made  good.  When  dry,  the  walls  might  be 
gone  over  again  with  whiting  and  some  of  the  colour  with 
which  the  walls  are  to  be  finished  in  the  size.  The  wmlls 
are  now  prepared  for  finishing.  A  crushed  strawberry 
colour,  if  desired,  could  be  made  from  Chinese  red,  lake, 
and  indian  red,  mixed  with  the  whiting  and  size.  The  dis¬ 
temper  will  not  rub  off  if  there  is  enough  size  in  it ;  use 
about  4  lb.  to  four  balls  of  whiting. 

In  preparing  a  wall  for  distemper,  the  best  preparation 
is  a  thin  flat  coat  of  paint.  First  size  the  wall  with  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  soap,  alum,  and  a  little  glue,  tinting  the  size  if  dark 
colours  are  to  be  used  or  if  the  wall  is  rough-  The  dis¬ 
temper  itself  should  be  put  on  in  one  coat  only,  as  it  tends 
to  peel  off  if  thick.  The  glue  should  be  covered  with 
water,  allowed  to  stand  overnight,  the  non-absorbed  water 
poured  off,  and  the  glue  melted.  The  colour  is  made  up 
to  a  paste  with  pigment  and  fine  whiting  (or  zinc  white  for 
very  fine  work),  and  is  mixed  with  the  glue  and  applied 
cool.  An  absorbent  wall  requires  a  large  quantity  of 
water.  If  oil  be  used,  the  wall  should  be  primed  or  sized. 
The  first  coat  ought  to  be  of  white-lead,  mixed  with  plenty 
of  oil,  a  little  japan,  and  some  turpentine.  The  fourth  or 
last  coat  should  be  made  flat,  well  thinned  with  tur¬ 
pentine,  but  of  the  full  colour  intended.  The  surface  thus 
produced  will  bear  cleaning  with  a  damp  cloth,  although 
it  contains  little  exposed  oil. 

A  wall  to  be  coloured  must  have  a  smooth  white  sand 
finish,  dry  and  hard,  and  damp  spots  should  be  treated 
with  shellac.  For  church  walls,  a  rough  floated  surface  is 
best  for  distemper.  Stippling  the  wall  surface  is  a  method 
sometimes  used  for  fine  work,  and  is  done  by  treating  the 
walls  with  the  butt  of  the  bristles.  A  solid  effect  is  ob- 


100 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


tained  by  the  process  if  a  full  coat  of  colour  is  given  first. 
For  wall  colours,  greys,  greenish  greys,  or  deep  reds  are 
suitable.  A  red,  solid  but  not  very  deep,  toned  with  yellow 
and  blue,  is  recommended  ;  a  light  orange  pink  is  used 
sparingly ;  a  pale  golden  tint  (yellowish  brown),  a  very 
difficult  colour  to  match  ;  a  pale  copper  colour  between 
these  two  ;  and  tints  of  green,  from  pure  and  pale  to  deep- 
ish  and  grey,  always  remembering  that  the  purer  the  paler 
and  the  deeper  the  greyer.  Perhaps  a  terra-cotta  red  or 
pink  is  one  of  the  most  useful  colours  for  halls  and  the 
dados  of  dining-rooms  and  staircases,  where  there  is  plenty 
of  light.  Tints  of  grey,  from  bluish  to  greenish  tones,  are 
suitable,  and  a  salmon  colour  is  effective  in  a  room  full  of 
cold  light. 

A  durable  whitewash  for  the  walls  of  a  backyard  may 
be  made  by  placing  in  a  tub,  or  other  suitable  vessel,  a 
bushel  of  unslaked  lime,  and  then  slaking  it  with  boiling 
water,  placing  a  lid  on  the  vessel  to  keep  in  the  steam. 
Allow  the  lime  to  remain  for  about  half  an  hour,  then  pass 
it  through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer.  In  another  vessel  dis¬ 
solve  8  lb.  of  glue-size  in  2  gal.  of  boiling  water,  after¬ 
wards  stirring  in  7  lb.  of  zinc  white  in  powder.  Now  add 
to  the  slaked  lime  about  8  gal.  of  hot  water  to  which  has 
been  added  10  lb.  of  common  salt,  and  stir  well  together ; 
then  add  to  the  lime  the  size  solution,  stirring  well  during 
the  operation.  The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  lime 
blue  will  counteract  the  yellowish  tint  which  so  often 
characterises  washes.  Before  applying  the  wash,  it  should 
be  slightly  warmed  ;  this  helps  it  to  work  more  freely.  It 
may  be  applied  either  with  fine  or  coarse  brushes,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  class  of  work  to  be  done.  It  is  also  very  use¬ 
ful  for  distemper  work.  If  desired,  this  wash  may  be  pre¬ 
pared  without  the  zinc  white,  but  has  not  such  good  cover¬ 
ing  properties.  When  the  zinc  white  is  added,  the  work 
requires  only  one  coat,  whilst  without  the  zinc  white  two 
coats  will  be  necessary. 

To  make  a  drab  distemper  for  basement  walls,  melt  in 
a  suitable  vessel  2  lb.  of  Scotch  glue  in  a  quart  of  water. 
In  another  vessel  mix  14  lb.  of  powdered  paris  white  to  a 
thick  paste  with  cold  water,  and  add  sufficient  dry  umber 
and  a  little  yellow  ochre  to  form  a  drab  of  the  desired 
shade.  Now  stir  the  glue  into  the  colouring  matter  and 


DISTEMPERING  AND  WHITEWASHING.  101 


allow  it  to  cool  down,  then  add  sufficient  cold  water  until 
the  required  consistency  is  obtained,  when  the  distemper 
is  ready  for  use.  Another  method  is  to  mix  together  1  lb. 
of  common  dextrin,  2  oz.  of  alum,  10  lb.  of  paris  white,  | 
lb.  of  dry  umber,  and  2  oz.  of  yellow  ochre.  Pass  all 
through  a  fine  sieve,  and  mix  well  together.  To  prepare 
for  use,  add  sufficient  cold  water  to  form  a  paste.  Both 
the  above  recipes  are  easy  to  prepare,  and  will  not  rub  or 
peel  off  when  dry. 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  will  deal  wholly  with 
washable  distempers,  which  are  now  extensively  used. 
They  are  most  serviceable,  perhaps,  for  colouring  the  walls 
and  ceilings  of  new  buildings  where  ordinary  materials 
would  not  give  satisfaction.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  a 
new  house  has  to  be  finished  off  quickly  for  occupation, 
and  that  the  walls  and  ceilings,  though  not  actually  wet, 
are  not  thoroughly  dry.  In  such  circumstances  oil  paint 
cannot  be  used,  for  it  would  afterwards  peel  off,  wall¬ 
paper  would  become  discoloured,  and  ordinary  colour-wash 
would  dry  patchy.  The  use  of  a  washable  distemper 
affords  the  best  way  out  of  the  difficulty.  Choose  a  wash 
that  does  not  contain  any  size,  lime,  or  whiting,  but  is 
made  from  zinc  white,  is  bound  with  oil  or  varnish,  and 
has  a  special  liquid  sold  with  it  for  diluting  purposes. 
Notes  on  washable  distempers  are  given  on  pp.  55  to  59. 

Washable  distempers  are  sold  in  every  shade  and 
colour,  but  for  new  work  those  colours  which  do  not  con¬ 
tain  chrome  must  be  chosen,  because  the  lime  in  the 
walls  affects  chromes  more  decidedly  than  it  affects  other 
pigments.  It  will  be  best,  therefore,  to  confine  the 
selection  to  the  greys,  buffs,  salmons,  terra-cottas,  browns, 
and  subdued  reds. 

Assuming  that  a  job  is  to  be  done  with  Duresco  (see 
p.  55),  the  walls  being  bare  and  clean,  no  washing  or 
other  preparation  will  be  required,  except  that  damaged 
places  must  be  made  good  with  pure  plaster-of-paris  mixed 
with  equal  portions  of  water  and  Duresco  thinners. 
Plaster  thus  mixed  will  set  slowly — that  is,  in  about  an 
hour — but  when  thoroughly  set  will  be  nearly  suctionless. 
All  patching  of  plaster  throughout  the  job  should  be  done 
as  early  as  possible,  in  order  that  it  may  have  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  drying  before  the  colour-wash  is  applied. 


FRAG  TIC  AL  FAIN  TEES'  WORK. 


102 


The  ceilings  will  require  two  coats,  and  they  should  be 
finished  before  the  walls  are  begun.  The  first  coat  for  the 
ceilings  may  be  white,  and  should  be  made  of  about  one- 
third  of  the  liquid  thinners  to  two-thirds  of  the  body, 
Duresco  distemper,  which  is  generally  sold  in  the  form  of  a 
stiff  paste.  It  is  not  practicable,  however,  to  lay  down  a 
hard-and-fast  rule  in  this  matter ;  everything  depends  on 
whether  the  plaster  to  be  coated  has  much  suction  or  not. 
If,  on  trial,  a  sample  brushful  works  out  too  thin  or  too 
stiff,  more  body  colour  or  more  thinners  can  be  added. 
These  distempers  require  to  be  used  rounder  than  ordin¬ 
ary  colour-wash.  A  good  general  rule  is  to  keep  them  as 
stiff  as  they  can  be  worked  comfortably. 

The  more  quickly  these  distempers  can  be  made  to  dry, 
the  better.  It  is  therefore  advisable,  in  cold  and  damp 
weather,  to  have  a  fire  in  the  room  where  they  are  being 
used  ;  and  at  the  finish  a  good  draught  of  air  should  be 
allowed  to  circulate  by  opening  the  wmdow  or  by  some 
other  means.  In  fine,  warm  weather  two  or  even  three 
coats  can  be  applied  in  one  day,  if  it  is  necessary  to  get 
the  work  finished  quickly.  The  ordinary  procedure,  how¬ 
ever,  is  to  allow  a  day  for  each  coat.  The  second  coat  for 
the  ceilings  may  be  white  or  cream,  and  must  be  mixed 
rounder  than  the  first,  using  water  only,  in  place  of  the 
special  liquid — for  thinning  the  body  colour — 1  part  water 
to  3  parts  body  colour  will  generally  be  about  the  right 
proportions  for  finishing  two-coat  ceiling  work.  Any 
splashes  made  on  other  parts  of  the  room  should  be  wiped 
up  before  they  dry,  as  afterwards  they  are  very  difficult 
to  remove. 

The  walls  may  require  either  two  or  three  coats,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  condition  of  the  plaster.  A  little  practice  with 
these  distempers  will  enable  a  man  to  make  a  first-class 
job  on  fair  plaster,  with  two  coats  and  a  touch-up  be¬ 
tween.  On  such  a  wall  a  good  round  first  coat  can  be 
applied.  This  first  coat,  when  dry,  will  not  be  of  a  uni¬ 
form  colour ;  some  places  will  have  dried  lighter  or  chalky. 
These  light  spots  generally  occur  near  angle-beads,  round 
fireplaces  and  door  casings,  and  where  the  plaster  has  been 
patched.  All  such  places  should  be  touched  up  with  a  bit 
of  stiff  colour  of  the  same  tint  as  that  used  for  first  coat¬ 
ing,  before  applying  the  second  coat.  When  the  work  is 


DISTEMPERING  AND  WHITEWASHING.  103 


dry,  rub  it  down  with  sandpaper.  The  second  and  finish¬ 
ing  coat  for  the  walls,  as  lor  the  ceilings,  should  be  mixed 
with  water  only,  and  applied  as  round  as  it  can  be  com¬ 
fortably  worked.  Some  prefer  the  finishing  coat  stippled. 
This  finish  is  in  some  cases  preferable,  but  is  not  abso¬ 
lutely  necessary. 

Where  greens  or  other  unsafe  colours  are  selected  for 
new  walls,  such  colours  should  be  used  for  the  finishing 
coat  only  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  first  coat,  or,  in  a  three-coat 
job,  the  first  and  second  coats,  should  be  safe  colours, 
which,  after  being  applied,  should  be  allowed  to  harden 
thoroughly  before  the  unsafe  finishing  coat  is  applied. 
Thus  a  hard  skin  separates  the  lime  in  the  plaster  from 
the  chrome  '  or  other  fugitive  stainers  in  the  finishing 
coats.  For  a  green  or  blue  finish,  first  coat  and  touch  up 
with  grey  of  about  the  same  depth.  If  the  finish  is  of 
bright  red  or  crimson,  the  first  coats  should  be  made  from 
Venetian  or  indian  red  and  white. 

In  some  cases  patches  after  being  touched  up  still  dry 
chalky.  This  generally  happens  when  a  plasterer,  in 
making  good,  has  used  lime  with  his  plaster.  In  such 
cases  the  remedy  is  to  make  up  a  little  round  flatting 
colour  to  match  the  colour  of  the  first  coating  distemper. 
Make  this  flatting  from  two-thirds  turps  and  one-third 
japanners’  gold-size,  with  sufficient  white-lead  and  dry 
staining  colours,  and  touch  up  the  patches  with  this. 

Where  the  ceiling,  frieze,  cornice,  etc.,  of  a  room  are 
to  be  finished  in  different  light  colours,  the  whole  can  be 
first  coated  down  with  white.  When  several  different 
colours  are  required  in  small  quantities,  it  is  cheaper  and 
better  in  every  way  to  get  the  bulk  of  the  distemper  in 
the  white,  and  small  quantities  of  special  pure  staining 
colours  separately.  These  stainers  are  sold  specially  by 
the  makers  for  mixing  with  the  white.  With  them  the 
painter  can  himself  make  any  small  quantity  of  any  shade 
or  colour  he  desires,  and  when  the  work  is  finished  he  will 
not  have  a  lot  of  perhans  useless  colours  left  on  his  hands. 

A  good  washable  distemper  needs  no  further  prepara¬ 
tion,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  use  size  in  any  way  on  work  to 
be  painted  with  it.  To  keep  these  distempers  in  good 
condition  for  a  length  of  time,  they  should  be  covered  with 
water,  and  of  course  protected  with  a  lid  to  keep  out 


104 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


dirt.  Brushes  after  use  should  be  well  rinsed  out  in  warm 
water. 

The  total  cost  of  doing  a  job  with  washable  distemper 
for  the  first  time  is,  roughly  speaking,  about  half  the  cost 
of  oil  paint,  or  nearly  double  that  of  ordinary  colour¬ 
wash.  It  is  when  work  previously  done  with  them  requires 
redoing  that  washable  distempers  show  to  greatest  ad¬ 
vantage  as  regards  cost.  When  a  surface  has  become 
dirty  and  requires  re-washing,  the  only  preparation  needed 
is  simply  dusting  or  rubbing  down  with  damp  cloths,  the 
washing  and  scraping  off  of  old  colour-wash  (always  a 
costly  item)  being  entirely  dispensed  with.  Old  work, 
however,  which  previously  has  been  either  papered  or 
colour-washed  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing 
and  scraping  before  the  washable  distemper  is  applied,  or 
chipping  or  scaling  is  likely  to  ensue.  When,  as  in  the 
case  of  old  limewash,  this  cleaning  cannot  be  done,  re¬ 
move  all  loose  stuff  (a  wire  scratch  brush  is  sometimes 
good  for  this)  and  apply  a  first  coat  of  thin  sharp  colour. 
This  colour  can  be  made  from  about  two-thirds  turps, 
one-third  oil  and  a  little  japanners’  gold-size,  with  suffi¬ 
cient  white-lead  and  oil  stainers  and  a  little  patent  driers. 
The  distemper  can  be  used  on  this  ground  without  fear  of 
ultimate  flaking. 

On  a  smooth  wall,  1  cwt.  of  unmixed  washable  dis¬ 
temper  will  paint  about  300  sq.  yd.  (two  coats).  In  some 
brickwork  or  roughcasting,  nearly  double  this  quantity  of 
material  may  be  required. 

Cement  should  be  left  alone  until  at  least  five  months 
old.  It  may  then  be  washed  down  with  dilute  vinegar, 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  again  coated 
with  dilute  vinegar.  After  this  treatment' it  may  be  coated 
with  the  washable  distemper. 

Painters  who  propose  to  make  then’  own  washable  dis¬ 
tempers  should  be  careful  to  use  only  the  best  materials. 
The  following  recipe  will  make  a  good  bodied  odourless 
distemper  which,  after  remaining  on  the  walls  from  three 
to  four  weeks,  will  not  rub  up  or  scale  off,  and  may  be 
painted  or  varnished  upon,  if  sizing  is  done  before  apply¬ 
ing  the  varnish.  This  preparation  may  also  be  used  as  a 
priming  coat  on  new  wood,  especially  where  cheapness  is 
desired,  as  it  prevents  the  wood  from  rapidly  absorbing  the 


DISTEMPERING  AND  WHITEWASHING.  105 


oil.  Obtain  14  lb.  of  finest  pans  white,  5  lb.  of  zinc  white, 
1  lb.  of  gum  arabic,  8  oz.  of  alum,  8  oz.  of  borax,  1  lb.  of 
glucose,  3  lb.  of  slaked  lime,  and  \  pt.  of  refined  linseed 
oil.  Mix  the  paris  white,  zinc  white,  and  lime  into  a  thick 
paste,  free  from  lumps.  In  another  vessel  dissolve  the 
gum  arabic,  alum,  and  borax  with  a  small  quantity  of 
boiling  water,  then  stir  wTell  into  the  zinc  white,  etc.,  fol¬ 
lowing  with  the  glucose.  The  linseed  oil  is  then  added 
and  stirred  well  until  thoroughly  mixed.  The  oil  may  be 
added  just  before  using,  if  desired.  After  the  oil  has  been 
mixed  in,  the  distemper  is  ready  for  use,  and  may  be 
further  made  ready  by  the  addition  of  cold  water. 

When  preparing  these  distempers  for  high-class  decora¬ 
tions,  the  ingredients  should  be  ground  thoroughly  be¬ 
tween  levigating  stones  or  cone  paint  mills,  but  for  or¬ 
dinary  purposes  may  be  used  without  grinding.  The  above 
formula  makes  an  excellent  white  distemper,  and  cheaper 
qualities  may  be  prepared  by  the  addition  of  paris  white 
or  whiting.  For  tinted  colours  made  from  the  white,  lime- 
resisting  colours  should  always  be  used,  otherwise  the  dis¬ 
tempers  when  applied  turn  patchy,  and  in  some  cases 
change  colour ;  for  instance,  the  lime  entirely  changes 
green  into  a  light  brown  colour.  These  distempers  can  be 
rendered  valuable  as  disinfectants  by  adding  oil  of  tar, 
carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid,  or  oil  of  cloves. 


106 


CHAPTER  IX. 

COLOUR  COMBINATION. 

The  operative  painter  who  is  called  upon  to  beautify  a 
house,  the  decorator  who  is  required  to  carry  out  a  scheme 
of  colour  merely  suggested  on  a  sketch,  or  the  sign-writer 
who  desires  to  produce  a  fascia  with  a  telling  combination 
of  colours,  is  frequently  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  proceed. 
The  painter  perhaps  tries  at  haphazard  one  or  two  com¬ 
binations  which  may  chance  to  be  passable  ;  the  decorator 
may  trust  to  his  eye  and  to  past  experience ;  the  sign- 
writer  either  repeats  some  familiar  combination  or  hazards 
an  experiment. 

A  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  colour  harmony,  however, 
would  render  haphazard  experiments  unnecessary.  But 
the  man  who  has  learnt  to  work  by  rule  of  thumb  is  in¬ 
clined  to  despise  theory,  because  it  sometimes  apparently 
runs  counter  to  his  own  experience,  or  because,  when  he 
has  attempted  to  put  into  practice  what  knowledge  he 
possessed  of  theory,  the  results  may  have  been  of  an  un¬ 
desirable  character.  But  the  fault  is  not  in  the  theory, 
but  in  the  man’s  superficial  knowledge  of  it,  and  his  con¬ 
sequently  incorrect  deductions. 

As  an  example  of  apparent  contradiction,  the  scientist 
dissecting  a  ray  of  light  shows  it  to  be  composed  of  seven 
primary  colours  (a  primary  is  a  colour  which  cannot  be 
any  further  split  up),  which  can  be  again  resolved  or 
brought  together  into  a  ray  of  white  light ;  while  the  man 
who  handles  pigments  finds  only  three  primaries,  from 
which  he  can  make  all  compound  hues,  even  black  ;  yet  the 
man  of  science  and  the  practical  man  are  both  right. 
The  mingled  rays  of  colour  producing  white,  and  the 
mixed  pigments  producing  black,'  severally  neutralise  each 
other,  the  result  in  both  cases  being  apparently  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  all  colour. 

Careful  investigation  of  these  and  other  seemingly  irre¬ 
concilable  facts  would  be  the  first  step  towards  a  better 


COLO  UR  COMB  IN  A  TION. 


107 


understanding  of  the  laws  of  colour  harmony,  knowledge 
which  cannot  fail  to  be  beneficial  to  the  workman. 

It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  there  are  two  sets  of 
theories :  those  which  may  be  followed  in  actual  work,  and 
those  which,  whilst  true  in  principle,  cannot  be  readily  re¬ 
duced  to  practice.  For  example,  though  the  chromatic 
circle  is  used  in  designing  a  scheme  of  colour,  and  the 
colour  is  worked  according  to  the  theory  of  neutralisation, 
yet  the  suitability,  the  situation,  and  the  light  the  colours 
will  be  seen  in,  are  also  factors  that  must  be  considered. 
The  designer  must  be  guided  by  the  eye,  though  directed 
by  the  mind. 

Professors  of  optics  have  produced  several  chromatic 
circles  which  differ  in  detail  to  a  small  extent,  but  the 
principle  is  the  same  in  all.  In  a  chromatic  circle  the 
colours  are  arranged  to  show  at  a  glance  the  relation  of 
one  colour  to  another,  and  are  so  placed  that  each  colour 
faces  its  complementary  colour — a  complementary  colour 
being  the  primary  or  secondary  that  is  required  to  make 
up  the  complement  of  coloured  rays  to  constitute  a  ray 
of  white  light. 

In  the  case  of  pigments,  the  complementary  colours 
opposite  each  other  in  the  circle  will  produce  black,  or  at 
least  grey ;  or,  in  other  words,  will  neutralise  each  other, 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  proportionate  quantity  of 
the  complementary  colour  used  with  the  principal  one.  As 
the  complementary  pairs  face  each  other  in  the  circle,  the 
principal  as  well  as  the  minor  modifications  can  be  seen. 
For  instance,  if  red  inclined  to  orange  is  adopted,  the 
complementary  green  will  incline  to  blue  at  the  opposite 
part  of  the  circle ;  or,  if  a  blue  is  selected  which  is  in¬ 
clined  to  green  in  hue,  its  complementary  will  incline  to 
red.  If  yellow  be  tinged  with  red,  the  violet  or  purple 
tone  of  its  complementary  will  incline  towards  blue.  The 
primaries  and  secondaries  only  are  shown  on  these  circles. 

By  mixing  either  of  the  three  primaries  in  pairs,  the 
compound  colours,  orange,  green,  and  violet  or  purple,  are 
produced  ;  by  combining  them  in  three,  the  broken  colours, 
russet,  olive  green,  citrine,  all  the  hues  between,  and 
black,  may  be  obtained.  Citrine  is  obtained  from  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  the  three  primaries,  with  yellow  in  excess  ;  russet  is 
a  mixture  of  the  three  primaries,  with  red  in  excess  ;  olive 


108 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


is  a  mixture  of  the  three  primaries,  with  the  green  in 
slight  excess. 

The  complementary  of  any  colour  is  the  colour  which 
is  in  the  strongest  contrast  to  it. 

White  is  not  altogether  a  void,  although  it  consists  of 
an  apparent  absence  of  colour ;  white  is  really  composed 
of  all  the  colours  mingled.  There  are  scarcely  any  purely 
white  objects  in  nature,  the  whites  being  all  slightly  tinged 
with  one  or  other  of  the  colours;  hence  there  are  cold 
whites  and  warm  whites.  Neither  is  black  altogether 
negative,  since  it  can  be  produced  by  a  mixture  of  the 
other  colours ;  it  may  be  a  brown-black  or  a  blue-black.  A 
tint  is  a  colour  with  -which  a  proportion  of  white  has  been 
mixed.  Luminosity  means  the  brilliancy  of  a  colour. 

Neutralisation,  which  dyers  call  saddening,  is  colour 
going  towards  shadow,  and  to  a  less  or  greater  degree  is 
used  in  all  decorative  work,  the  wall  surfaces  being  al¬ 
ways  a  background.  Neutralisation  produces  what  are 
called  sesthetic  shades,  which  harmonise  with  each  other 
because  they  are  subdued,  or  saddened,  and  have  one 
dominant  tone.  Tertiary  colours  all  approach  black  or 
grey ;  they  may  be  called  saddened  colours  or  shadow 
colours. 

Fig.  44  represents  an  example  of  the  chromatic  circle 
previously  mentioned ;  its  inner  circle  indicates  the  result¬ 
ant  effects  of  adding  white  to  the  colours  named  in  the 
outer  circle  ;  for  instance,  white  added  to  scarlet  produces 
buff.  In  Fig.  45  the  inner  circle  indicates  the  resultant 
colours  obtained  by  combining  the  complementary  pairs 
named  at  diametrically  opposite  segments  of  the  outer 
circle.  For  example,  the  mixture  of  vermilion  with 
emerald  green  produces  sage  if  the  green  preponderates, 
and  russet  if  the  vermilion  is’in  excess. 

The  pigments  used  by  the  painter  are  not  direct  central 
colours  that  can  be  placed  at  regular  intervals  upon  the 
chromatic  circle.  Vermilion  is  a  yellow  tone  of  red,  crim¬ 
son  lake  is  a  blue  tone  of  red,  indian  red  is  purple  in  tone, 
light  red  is  inclined  to  yellow,  and  is  neutral  in  character. 
The  nearest  direct  yellow  is  pale  chrome.  Prussian  blue 
is  a  greenish  tone  of  blue,  and  is  a  good  colour  for  mixing 
green  ;  ultramarine  blue  is  a  red  blue,  and  makes,  when 
mixed  with  yellow,  a  low  tone  of  green,  on  account  of  the 


COLOUR  COMBINATION. 


109 


red  in  the  blue,  which  neutralises  the  green.  Emerald 
green  is  a  cold  strong  green  ;  cobalt  is  nearer  to  green  than 
ultramarine.  The  ochres,  siennas,  and  browns  are  all 
tertiary  tints,  and  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the 

Red 


USdJQ 

Fig-.  41. — Chromatic  Circle,  Inner  Circle  showing-  Results  of  adding 
White  to  Colours  in  Outer  Circle. 


chromatic  circle.  In  none  of  the  pigments  is  there  direct 
central  colour,  such  as  exists  in  the  rays  of  light. 

In  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  colouring,  neutralisa¬ 
tion  was  always  obtained.  It  forms  the  keynote  of  all 
colour  schemes.  If  the  chromatic  circle  of  the  scientist, 
of  the  dyer,  or  of  the  decorator  is  examined,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  complementary  pairs  in  each,  if  mixed  to- 


110 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


gether,  neutralise  each  other.  Neutralisation  forms  the 
light  and  shadow  in  the  colouring  of  nature,  and  it  is  the 
dominant  factor  in  high  art. 

The  shadow  of  a  colour  approaches  black — that  is,  it 
is  partially  neutralised.  This  neutralisation  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  a  scheme  of  colour.  The  ancients,  in  using 
pure  pigments,  obtained  neutralisation  by  proportioning 
the  ground  covered  by  the  several  colours,  and  by  the 
use  of  compensatory  white,  gold  and  black,  which  check 
all  strong  colouring.  For  outside  work,  advertisements, 
fascias,  etc.,  much  might  be  learnt  from  the  brilliant 
colouring  of  the  ancients.  Even  with  the  Egyptians,  neu¬ 
tralisation  tempered  the  strong  colouring  of  their  walls. 
The  partial  rounding  of  the  patterns  into  the  ground, 
helped  by  the  great  shadows  thrown  by  the  massive 
architecture  in  the  flood  of  sunlight,  gave  the  required 
neutralisation.  The  theory  of  neutralisation  is  thoroughly 
understood  by  the  French,  who  are  famous  for  beautiful 
refinement  of  colour.  The  three  primaries,  mixed  to¬ 
gether,  enter  into  nearly  every  tone  in  their  decorations. 
The  colour,  broken  with  white  as  well  as  with  the  com¬ 
plementary,  is  thus  refined  in  two  ways — that  is,  towards 
light  and  towards  shadow.  In  their  schemes  of  colour, 
too,  there  is  always  a  dominant  tone  ;  the  work  may  be 
either  warm  or  cold.  In  Egyptian  work  strong  colour  is 
compensated  for  by  actual  shadow;  in  French  work  it  is 
subdued  by  mixing  the  tints  together. 

The  pigments  of  the  ancients  were  never  direct  central 
colours,  such  as  are  foimd  in  rays  of  light.  The  reds, 
browns,  and  yellows  of  the  Assyrians  and  Egyptians  were 
inclined  to  be  of  a  neutral  tone.  The  red  of  the  ancient 
Japanese  was  a  very  yellow  tone  of  red,  and  their  blue  was 
greyish  in  tone.  The  Persians  used  a  green  blue,  with  a 
purple  blue  as  a  contrast.  The  Pompeians  used  a  yellow 
which  was  practically  an  orange  tinged  with  blue ;  their 
red  can  only  be  imitated  by  the  use  of  various  modern 
pigments.  It  may,  by  varying  the  proportions  of  different 
pigments,  be  made  to  harmonise  with  the  colour  with 
which  it  is  in  proximity.  It  is  made  from  a  mixture  of 
vermilion,  ochre,  or  raw  sienna  or  burnt  sienna,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  the  umbers.  The  black  of  the 
Pompeians  is  best  imitated  by  the  use  of  the  three 


COLOUR  COMBINATION. 


Ill 


primaries  ;  it  can  never  be  matched  by  the  black  pigment 
sold  by  modern  manufacturers. 

In  devising  a  scheme  of  colour  for  a  building  or  part 
of  a  building,  several  methods  may  be  adopted.  A 
primary  may  be  taken,  and  used  in  small  quantities  with 


Bed 


Fig'.  45. — Chromatic  Circle,  Inner  Circle  showing  Results  of 
combining  Complementary  Pairs  of  Colours. 

all  the  hues  into  which  the  primaries  enter ;  for  example, 
yellow  may  be  used  with  all  the  hues  between  orange  and 
blue  for  a  wall  surface,  or  one  primary  may  be  selected, 
and  two  secondaries,  as  red,  green,  orange ;  or  the 
broken  tints  or  tertiaries  may  be  used,  say  claret,  russet, 
and  olive  green. 


112 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


In  a  scheme  the  colours  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
gently  graded  one  into  the  other.  An  alternative  is  to 
select  one  colour  for  the  ground,  and  use  darker  or  lighter 
tones  of  the  same  colour,  with  a  complementary  for  con¬ 
trast  ;  or  two  warm  colours,  with  one  cold  colour  as  a 
contrast.  Colours  of  the  same  hue  may  be  altered  in 
value  by  the  addition  of  white  to  one  of  them,  or  one  may 
be  altered  by  adding  to  its  complementary  or  contrast 
colour.  There  should  not  be  less  than  120°  between  the 
colours  selected  from  the  chromatic  circle ;  the  wider  apart 
they  are,  the  better. 

Experience  shows  that  a  colour  may  be  deepened  in  ap¬ 
pearance  by  being  contrasted  with  white,  or  may  be  lightened 
by  the  contiguity  of  black.  Blue  makes  yellow  look  brighter 
and  fuller  of  colour.  Yellow  causes  blue  to  look  purer  and  less 
luminous.  Blue  and  yellow  stand  next  to  white  and  black 
as  examples  of  contrast.  Blue  on  a  black  ground  appears 
to  add  orange  to  the  black,  thus  making  the  latter  less 
brilliant.  As  Chevreul  says,  “  each  becomes  tinged  with 
the  complementary  of  the  other.”  On  the  other  hand, 
orange  on  a  black  ground  appears  to  add  blue  to  the 
black,  so  that  it  appears  of  a  deeper  black.  When  car¬ 
mine  is  either  mixed  with  or  placed  on  a  black,  it  becomes 
purplish  in  tone.  Black  placed  upon  white  causes  the 
white  to  tend  towards  a  bluish  grey  ;  whilst  upon  yellow 
it  appears  tinged  with  olive  green. 

The  luminous  colours,  as  yellow,  orange,  red,  and, 
generally  speaking,  the  light  tones  of  all  colours,  are 
improved  by  the  presence  of  black  ;  but  blue  is  an  ex¬ 
ception.  White  grounds  do  not  suit  luminous  colours.  If 
white  is  mixed  with  a  pigment,  it  weakens  its  intensity  ; 
thus  vermilion  becomes  a  pink.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to 
lighten  it  with  chrome  yellow,  as  this  will  not  destroy  its 
character.  The  browns  are  also  deprived  of  their  tone  by 
white.  Raw  sienna  is  a  useful  pigment  to  prevent  chalki¬ 
ness  in  a  scheme  of  colour.  Generally  speaking,  black 
causes  colours  to  look  brighter,  while  white  lowers  their 
luminosity. 

The  effect  of  colour  depends  on  its  situation,  the  light 
in  which  it  is  seen,  and  the  colours  associated  with  it.  In 
a  dimly  lighted  room,  strong  pure  colours  may  be  used,  but 
the  same  colours  would  look  bad  in  a  strong  light ;  a 


COLOUR  COMBINATION. 


113 


medium  light  is  best  for  colour.  Surface  reflection  also 
gi'eatly  affects  the  colour  results,  a  polished  or  varnished 
surface  differing  greatly  from  a  reticulated  surface. 

A  number  of  contrasts  must  also  be  considered.  There 
is  contrast  of  tone,  the  gradations  of  a  colour  towards 
white  and  towards  black  ;  contrasts  of  hue,  the  gradations 
of  one  colour  towards  another  colour — say  from  red  to 
yellow,  or  red  to  blue,  or  blue  to  yellow  ;  contrasts  of  tex¬ 
ture,  where  various  shades  or  colours  are  shown,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  light  that  falls  on  it.  For  instance,  an  orange- 
coloured  silk  will  look  yellow  in  the  high  lights  and  brown 
in  the  folds  ;  a  blue  will  be  violet  in  the  shades,  and  a 
green  will  look  blue  in  the  lights  ;  a  crimson  silk  will  be 
scarlet  in  the  lights,  and  almost  a  black  in  the  shadows. 

Gold  appears  black  or  invisible  in  parts,  according  to 
the  light  in  which  it  is  seen.  For  this  reason,  gold  is 
generally  outlined  with  black  or  dark  brown.  By  artificial 
light,  green  appears  blue  ;  crimson,  purple  ;  purple,  violet ; 
yellow,  white  ;  dark  purple,  black. 

All  colours  show  a  different  effect  when  on  different 
planes,  and  tones  of  colour  obtain  their  value  from  their 
situation,  as  well  as  from  their  contrast  with  each  other. 
It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  try  all  colours  in  the  positions 
they  are  intended  to  occupy,  and  in  the  light  in  which  they 
are  to  be  seen. 

Colours  which  are  incongruous  when  seen  side  by  side 
or  overlapping,  give  satisfactory  results  when  separated 
by  a  line  of  white,  black,  or  gold,  according  to  circum¬ 
stances.  These  three  colours  compensate  for  strong 
colouring  ;  being  themselves  neutral  their  presence  helps 
to  give  the  necessary  neutralisation. 

When  a  faulty  background  prevents  ornament  from 
being  effective,  the  ornament  should  have  an  edging  of 
another  colour,  either  a  band  or  an  outline — the  outline 
serving  as  a  supplementary  background  to  throw  up  the 
ornament,  when  the  original  background  is  not  strong 
enough  to  do  this.  White,  gold,  or  black — which,  as  al¬ 
ready  stated,  are  neutral  and  compensatory  colours — may 
form  the  outline  to  any  colour.  Outline  is  not  necessary 
for  ornament  on  a  black  or  white  ground.  In  self-tints — 
that  is,  tones  or  shadows  of  the  same  colour — a  light  tint 
on  a  dark  ground  may  be  used  ;  but  a  darkish  ornament 
h 


114 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


on  a  light  ground  calls  for  an  outline  of  a  darker  tint  than 
the  light  one. 

The  practice  of  putting  a  little  black  or  umber  with 
a  colour  when  that  colour  in  its  pure  state  is  too  bright  for 
its  situation  is  a  very  crude  way  of  dealing  with  the  diffi¬ 
culty.  Suppose,  for  instance,  a  wall  has  to  be  painted 
crimson-lake  (which,  although  considered  to  be  a  primary 
colour,  is  a  red  inclined  to  blue).  To  put  black  with  such 
a  colour  because  it  is  too  bright  in  large  masses  has  the 
effect  of  making  it  look  dirty,  and  one  might  as  well  buy 
a  cheap,  and  therefore  dull,  colour.  The  proper  corrective 
in  this  case  would  be  yellow  ochre,  as  the  complementary 
colour  to  lake,  which  would  lower  its  tone  without  de¬ 
stroying  its  richness.  Black  may  be  used  in  contrast  and 
in  company  with  other  colours  as  a  background  or  as  an 
outline  (it  makes  a  fine  tertiary  green  with  yellow),  but  the 
rule  is  that  over-bright  colours  should  be  corrected  by 
their  complementaries,  and  not  with  black. 

In  the  combination  of  colours  the  aim  should  be  to  get 
“  colour,”  not  a  number  of  colours  set  out  side  by  side. 
The  colours  must  be  in  harmony  with  each  other,  and  there 
must  be  a  relationship  between  them,  or  a  touch  of  the 
same  nature  in  them  all.  The  idea  should  be  to  develop  the 
proportions  in  a  room  or  building,  and  so  to  manage  its 
adornment  by  contrast  of  tone  and  depth  of  colour  that  the 
effect  of  space  is  produced.  This  is  by  no  means  im¬ 
possible.  If  a  piece  of  purple  velvet,  for  instance,  were 
hung  at  the  end  of  a  room,  it  would  appear  as  if  there  were 
a  hole  in  the  wall. 

It  is  true  that  to  devise  a  scheme  of  colour  requires 
not  only  inventive  skill,  but  quick  perception  and  ready 
adaptation.  Theory,  the  chromatic  circle,  and  acquired 
knowledge  are  all  helpful,  but  they  are  helps  only.  The 
many  examples  of  colour  in  flowers,  fruits  and  leaves  are 
full  of  suggestion.  Take,  for  example,  the  colours  of  an 
apple  ;  there  are  apples  red  and  apples  yellow,  the  leaves 
show  a  variety  of  green,  and  there  is  a  touch  of  the  leaf 
green  on  the  apple  as  well ;  these,  with  the  browns  and 
greens  of  the  branches  and  twigs,  readily  suggest  a  scheme 
of  colour.  In  all  red  flowers  there  are  as  many  varieties 
of  the  secondary  green  as  there  are  varieties  of  the  red  in 
the  flowers  themselves. 


COLOUR  COMBINATION. 


115 


As  an  exercise,  the  student  may  set  out  several  circles 
on  a  slab,  and  paint  them  of  any  colour  produced  by  the  ad¬ 
mixture  of  the  three  primaries,  chrome  yellow — or,  better 
still,  cadmium — crimson  lake,  and  prussian  blue,  after¬ 
wards  giving  them  proper  neutralisation.  The  practice 
necessary  to  produce  these  spheres  will  greatly  help  to  a 
mastery  of  colour,  since  it  will  be  found  that  shading,  or 
saddening,  or  neutralisation  means  producing  a  shadow  of 
the  colour  itself ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  a  shadow  suit¬ 
able  for  the  yellow  sphere  will  not  be  suitable  for  green, 
and  so  on.  The  painted  part  of  the  interior  of  a  house  is 
always  in  the  nature  of  a  background ;  no  matter  how 
bright  may  be  the  colours  selected,  they  all  need  neutralis¬ 
ing  to  some  extent. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  that  inasmuch  as  the  colour¬ 
ing  to  be  applied  to  a  room  will  often  depend  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  colour  of  the  curtains  and  of  the  carpet,  not 
much  latitude  is  given  to  the  painter.  The  ceiling  should 
contrast  with  the  carpet ;  the  curtains  and  chair  coverings 
should  be  met  with  a  contrast  on  the  walls  and  woodwork. 
As  already  said,  the  aim  should  be  to  get  colour,  not 
colours,  so  the  contrasts  should  be  in  harmony.  Rooms 
with  a  cold  aspect  should  be  warm  ;  in  a  warm  aspect 
should  be  cool.  Bedrooms  should  be  light,  quiet,  and 
cool ;  dining-rooms  rich ;  drawing-rooms  in  colours  which 
are  cheerful  in  character  and  which  light  up  well  at  night. 
The  staircase  should  present  a  comfortable  and  inviting 
appearance.  If  a  room  is  well  lighted,  the  colours  must 
be  kept  subdued,  but  when  the  room  is  sombre  the  colours 
may  be  brighter  and  less  neutral. 

As  the  wall  surface  is  a  background  to  everything  in  the 
room,  it  should  harmonise  with  everything,  and  a  sym¬ 
pathetic  tone  should  run  through  all  the  colours  used.  If 
the  colour  of  the  furniture  is  warm,  a  wai’m  tone  should 
appear  in  the  paper ;  if  cool,  a  cool  tone.  If  a  wall  is  red, 
the  red  should  be  reproduced  in  the  woodwork,  and  so  on. 
Even  contrasts  should  be  harmonious,  and  this  harmony 
may  be  obtained  by  neutralisation  and  the  use  of  com¬ 
plementary  colours. 

Disappointment  with  the  effect  of  coloured  decoration 
when  finished  is  frequently  the  result  of  choosing  the  tint 
from  sample  cards  that  are  really  too  small  to  give  a  good 


116 


PRACTICAL  PA  INTERS’  WORK. 


idea  of  the  general  effect  except  to  an  experienced  person. 
It  is  much  more  satisfactory  to  paint  the  tints  for  approval 
on  pieces  of  wood  (as,  for  instance,  on  the  short  ends  of 
matchboards  or  floorboards  thrown  aside  as  waste  by  the 
carpenter),  painting  only  one  tint  on  each  piece  ;  this  gives 
a  much  better  idea  of  the  general  effect. 

It  may  save  much  time,  and  ensure  a  good  match  later, 
if  the  exact  particulars  of  the  pigments  used  are  noted 
on  each  sample  ;  and,  of  course,  the  samples  can  be  pre¬ 
served  for  further  use. 

Another  cause  of  disappointment  with  the  finished  tint, 
when  the  work  is  to  be  varnished,  is  selecting  the  colour 
when  painted  only.  To  submit  a  tint  with  a  brief  in¬ 
timation  that  it  will  be  slightly  darker  when  varnished  is 
apt  to  be  misleading,  and  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  give 
the  sample  paint  as  many  coats  of  varnish  as  the  work  is 
intended  to  have  ;  and  if  the  paint  is  a  delicate  tint,  it  is 
important  that  the  varnish  in  the  sample  should  be  of  the 
same  kind  and  quality  as  that  which  is  to  be  used  for  the 
work. 


117 


CHAPTER  X. 

HOUSE  PAINTING. 

The  quantity  of  material  required  for  a  job  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  the  extent  of 
surface  to  be  covered,  etc.  For  an  average  house  the  fol¬ 
lowing  will  be  necessary :  Turps,  5  gal.  ;  white-lead,  6 
cwt.  ;  raw  linseed  oil,  10  gal.  ;  boiled  linseed  oil,  2  gal.  ; 
stainers  in  oil  and  water ;  12  doz.  of  the  best  whiting ; 
patent  knotting,  1  gal.  ;  patent  driers,  6  lb.  Have  a  knot¬ 
ting  pot  in  each  room ;  when  there  is  only  one,  a  great 
deal  of  time  will  be  wasted  in  searching  for  it.  A  good 
supply  of  rags  is  also  desirable. 

Approximately  1  gal.  of  paint  should  cover  from  450  to 
630  super,  ft.  of  wood,  and  for  a  well-painted  surface  of 
iron  720  ft.  may  be  covered  by  1  gal.  of  paint.  Some  pig¬ 
ments  cover  better  than  others.  Rusty  places  swallow  up 
paint.  Stucco  takes  more  paint  than  wood. 

The  proportions  for  outside  work  under  ordinary  con¬ 
ditions,  per  100  yd.,  for  four  coats,  not  flatted,  are: — 
Priming:  For  hard  wood,  2  lb.  red-lead,  18^  lb.  white- 
lead,  3  pt.  raw  linseed,  3  pt.  boiled  linseed,  ^  lb.  driers. 
Second  colour :  15  lb.  white-lead,  2  pt.  raw  linseed  oil, 
2  pt.  boiled  oil,  ^  pt.  of  turps,  T^-  lb.  driers.  Third  coat: 
15  lb.  white-lead,  2  pt.  each  raw  and  boiled  oil,  It  pt. 
turps,  TV  lb.  driers.  Fourth  coat:  15  lb.  white-lead,  3  pt. 
of  raw  oil,  2j  pt.  of  boiled  oil,  lb.  driers.  For  every 
100  sq,  yd.  take  2^  lb.  of  white-lead  and  5  lb.  of  putty  for 
stopping.  Woodwork  should  not  receive  less  than  four 
coats  of  paint. 

The  articles  needed  are : — Putty,  pumice-stone,  glass- 
paper,  plaster-of-paris  or  Keene’s  cement,  a  few  pounds  of 
soft  soap  and  hard  soap  ;  leather,-  canvas,  drop  cloths,  paint 
removers,  a  towel  or  two  ;  four  or  five  flat  brushes,  doz. 
clean  pails,  1  doz.  clean  paint  cans  or  pots,  dust  brushes, 
paint  brushes,  sash-tool's,  oils,  turps,  varnish,  patent 
driers,  terebene,  four  planks,  four  trestles,  two  step-lad- 


118 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


ders ;  kegs  of  driers  (patent) ;  colours  in  tins  (more  useful 
for  mixing  than  dry  colours)  ;  clean  cans  and  pots  (cans 
which  are  small  at  the  bottom,  though  not  too  small,  and 
which  have  straight  sides,  are  preferable,  as  they  are  so 
easy  to  clean  down) ;  a  sheet  of  glass  or  marble  to  rub 
colours  on ;  knives,  large  and  small,  and  various-shaped 
putty  knives ;  sash-tools  of  various  sizes  for  mouldings  and 
window  sashes  ;  dusters  and  pound  brushes,  according  to 
the  number  of  men  ;  a  bench,  or  two  pairs  of  short  trestles, 
should  also  be  taken,  with  a  big  board,  or  some  short 
boards  side  by  side,  as  there  is  great  comfort  in  a  broad 
paint  bench.  The  colours  in  most  request  are  ochre, 
umber,  Venetian  red,  and  chrome  green. 

Plenty  of  scaffolding  should  be  taken  for  the  job,  for  a 
great  deal  of  time  is  often  wasted  in  running  about  for  a 
pair  of  steps  or  in  shifting  the  scaffold.  For  a  ceiling, 
trestles  perhaps  are  best,  about  7  ft.  or  8  ft.  apart,  with 
battens  from  one  trestle  to  another.  Battens  are  better 
than  boards,  as  they  are  stouter,  and  give  a  hold  for  the 
boards  to  rest  on,  and  the  boards  should  be  lined  with 
thinner  ones.  The  scaffold  ought  not  to  be  taken  down  till 
the  ceiling  and  cornice  are  finished.  The  scaffold  should 
be  about  1  ft.  6  in.  from  the  wall,  and  about  6  ft.  6  in.  from 
the  ceiling,  according  to  the  height  of  the  men,  who  must 
not  be  too  near  to  see  the  effect  of  the  work,  nor  so  far 
away  as  to  necessitate  tiresome  reaching.  A  few  boxes 
on  a  scaffold  are  useful  for  the  shorter  men  to  stand  on. 
It  is  preferable  to  cover  the  scaffolding  with  boards  within 
easy  distance  of  each  other.  The  removing  and  replacing 
of  boards  always  involves  considerable  trouble  and  loss 
of  time,  besides  raising  dust. 

Traps  that  may  cause  accidents  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  and  the  planks  should  be  lashed  where  any 
likelihood  of  a  trap  presents  itself. 

The  trestles  should  be  carefully  examined  to  ascertain 
whether  the  rail  is  strong  enough  to  hold  the  weight  of  the 
scaffolding.  A  pair  of  steps  or  a  ladder  placed  against 
the  scaffold  makes  it  easy  to  ascend  and  descend. 

Pots  of  colour  or  tools  should  never  be  left  on  scaffold 
boards  or  steps. 

Any  insecurity  or  oscillation  of  the  scaffold  should  be 
immediately  reported  to  the  foreman.  The  scaffold  for  the 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


119 


staircase  should  be  built  on  poles,  which  adapt  themselves 
to  the  unevenness  of  the  staircase  and  make  a  firm 
scaffold.  A  batten  nailed  crosswise  to  form  a  raking  stay 
is  most  useful  in  stopping  the  oscillation  of  a  scaffold. 
The  ladders  must  be  wedged,  to  prevent  slipping.  Take 
care  that  the  ropes  are  sound  on  the  trestles,  and  that 
the  stay  cords  are  pulled  out  to  their  fullest  exent.  Do 
not  use  ladders  or  steps  which  have  a  missing  round,  which 
is  sure  to  be  forgotten  and  thus  cause  an  accident. 

Trestles  have  a  tendency  to  fold  unless  securely  placed 
at  first,  and,  if  necessary,  fortified  with  wedges.  It  is 
dangerous  to  place  trestles  in  two  levels — as  on  a  stair¬ 
case,  for  instance. 

The  selection  of  rope  is  an  important  matter,  about 
which  a  few  hints  may  be  useful.  A  good  hemp  rope  is 
hard  yet  pliant,  of  a  yellowish  or  greenish-grey  colour,  and 
has  a  kind  of  sheen,  silvery  or  pearly.  A  dark  or  black¬ 
ish  colour  shows  that  in  the  process  of  curing  the  hemp 
has  suffered  from  fermentation.  Brown  spots  indicate  that 
the  fibres  were  wet  when  the  rope  was  twisted,  and  that 
it  is  therefore  weak  and  soft.  Hopes  are  sometimes  made 
with  a  core  of  inferior  hemp,  covered  with  good  hemp  on 
the  outside  ;  this  fraud  may  be  detected  by  cutting  up  a 
piece.  Others  are  made  with  short  fibres  or  of  unequal 
strength,  or  are  unevenly  twined ;  the  first  fault  is  dis¬ 
closed  by  the  woolly  appearance  of  the  rope,  the  ends  of 
the  fibre  projecting  giving  this  effect.  Close  examination 
may  disclose  other  faults  that  may  be  disastrous  to  life  or 
limb. 

A  room  (under  lock  and  key)  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
work  should  be  set  aside  to  contain  material,  which  no  one 
should  touch  but  the  foreman  or  colourman,  and  this  room 
should  be  kept  tidy.  It  may  be  necessary  to  have  a  colour 
bench  in  each  of  the  several  rooms,  if  these  are  large, 
and  .if  there,  is  a  great  amount  of  work  to  be  done.  In 
every  case,  the  colour  bench  must  be  placed  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  actual  work.  A  range  of  colours  should 
be  kept  either  ready  ground  on  the  bench  or  dry  in  bot¬ 
tles — not  in  pieces  of  paper  to  be  scattered  about  all  over 
the  bench  and  wasted.  Cover  the  paint  bench  with  lining- 
paper,  which  can  be  frequently  renewed  and  the  bench 
thus  kept  clean. 


120 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS1  WORK. 


Brushes  require  constant  attention.  A  colourman  or 
boy  ought  always  to  be  at  the  colour  bench  to  keep  .it  tidy, 
to  strain  colours,  attend  to  the  brushes,  and  clean  the  pots 
down  every  night.  Pots  should  be  rinsed  out  with  a  little 
turps  and  wiped  with  a  rag.  All  pots  and  palette  knives 
must  be  cleaned  whilst  wet. 

All  wooden  buckets  on  the  job  should  contain  a  little 
water  when  not  in  use ;  otherwise  they  get  too  dry,  and 
become  liable  to  split.  During  frosty  weather  they  should, 
when  not  in  use,  be  kept  in  a  cellar  to  prevent  injury  from 
frost. 

On  beginning  the  job,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
protect  the  place  from  possible  damage  by  dirt  brought  in 
from  the  street  and  by  dust  from  the  scaffolding.  When 
washing  down  is  being  done  near  a  marquetry  floor,  saw¬ 
dust  may  be  put  down  to  protect  the  floor,  and  changed 
when  it  becomes  wet  from  the  washing.  To  protect  floors, 
paste  brown  paper  all  over  them.  Treat  the  treads  of  the 
stairs  in  the  same  way.  A  small  piece  of  thin  board 
nailed  to  each  tread  prevents  a  good  deal  of  damage.  A 
painter  should  change  his  boots  every  time  he  enters  the 
house,  so  that  the  dirt  of  the  street  should  not  be 
brought  in. 

If  doors  can  be  taken  off  the  hinges,  they  can  then  be 
painted  quicker  and  better,  and  if  they  can  be  carried  out 
into  the  yard,  all  damage  to  the  floors  by  the  washing 
down  is  avoided. 

A  systematic  method  should  be  adopted.  The  work 
should  be  begun  at  the  top  of  the  house ;  everything 
should  be  made  ready  beforehand,  and  the  paint  bench 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  work.  The  lime  and 
soda  and  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  rest  on  the  floor. 
Cleanliness  in  this  respect  is  most  important,  as  these 
substances  burn  and  damage  woodwork. 

The  work  in  the  interior  of  a  house  should  be  begun 
at  the  top  back  bedrooms.  Put  two  men  in  the  top  rooms. 
They  should  begin  at  the  right-hand  corner  of  the  room, 
the  doors  and  windows  to  follow  the  left  hand.  This  plan 
should  be  observed  all  through  the  house.  All  waste  and 
dirt  must  be  cleaned  away  before  the  painting  is  begun. 
The  staircase  must  be  left  to  the  last. 

In  stopping,  care  must  be  taken  to  fill  up  the  cracks 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


121 


round  the  doors,  window  frames,  etc.  The  painted  mantel¬ 
pieces  should  be  washed  with  strong  soda  and  limewater. 
Let  the  strong  stuff  stand  a  while  on  the  work  to  soak  in, 
then  wash  it  off  with  plenty  of  water.  If  the  mantelpieces 
are  of  marble,  lay  them  in  with  a  paste  composed  of  soda, 
whiting,  and  pumice-stone  dust.  Rub  it  on  with  a  rag 
where  any  bad  stains  may  be.  Let  the  composition  remain 
on  the  work  for  a  few  hours,  or  till  the  dirt  can  be  re¬ 
moved.  In  obstinate  cases,  lemon-juice,  bullock’s  gall  and 
a  little  whiting,  or  spirits  of  vitriol  in  bad  places,  may  be 
used  with  effect.  Afterwards  the  surfaces  can  be  polished 
with  tripoli,  muriatic  acid,  putty-powder  and  water,  finish¬ 
ing  with  clean  dry  rags. 

In  beginning  to  paint  a  room,  the  ceilings  should  be 
first  attended  to,  then  the  paint.  All  the  washing  and 
stripping  should  be  done  first.  The  wall-paper  must  be 
removed,  and  paint  stripped  or  washed  as  the  case  may 
be,  care  being  taken  not  to  slop  the  water  about.  The 
old  paper  is  removed  a  small  piece  at  a  time  and  swept 
to  the  centre  cf  the  room.  All  old  distemper  and  wall¬ 
paper  should  be  cleaned  off.  The  decaying  paste  of  wall¬ 
papers  frequently  harbours  the  germs  of  disease ;  the 
work  should  therefore  be  washed  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  All  the  woodwork  must  be  thoroughly  washed  to 
remove  grease,  as  there  is  always  sufficient  on  the  wood 
to  prevent  the  paint  from  drying.  To  remove  the  dis¬ 
temper  and  wall-paper,  soak  it  with  a  full-haired  brush.  A 
worn-out  brush  or  scrub  helps  to  rub  off  the  pieces  which 
stick,  and  a  scraper  about  2  in.  broad  makes  it  easy  to  re¬ 
move  the  stale  paste  and  old  paper  from  the  ceiling  and 
walls.  A  piece  of  coarse  canvas  and  a  sponge  are  useful 
for  final  cleaning. 

The  cornice  is  washed  as  well  as  the  walls.  The  quirks 
should  be  all  cleaned  out,  and  plenty  of  water  should  be 
used  in  the  process,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  scatter 
it  about  the  place.  Plenty  of  rags  and  water  should  be  at 
hand,  and  extreme  tidiness  must  be  observed.  Careless¬ 
ness  in  painting  causes  more  damage  than  time  and  wear, 
and  it  is  as  important  to  prevent  damage  as  it  is  to  repair 
it.  Washings-off  should  be  cleaned  up  promptly  and  con¬ 
tinually  as  the  work  goes  on.  In  the  morning,  before 
beginning  to  paint,  a  sweep-out-  is  necessary.  Care  should 


122 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


be  taken  to  keep  the  colour  from  the  sides  of  the  paint 
pots  and  kegs,  as  well  as  from  the  heart  of  the  brushes. 

Whilst  the  cornices  are  free  from  distemper,  the  in¬ 
terstices  of  the  ornament  should  be  scraped  out  with  pieces 
of  wood  cut  to  shape,  or  with  a  penknife. 

The  ceiling  is  now  clearcoled  and  then  distempered 
(see  Chapter  VIII.).  The  first  coat  for  the  ceiling  should 
be  thin  and  fairly  hot ;  the  second  is  used  with  the  chilled 
colour,  so  as  to  go  on  thick.  Do  not  lay  off  the  colour  as 
in  oil  painting,  but  put  it  on  in  short  strokes  in  varying 
directions,  so  that  the  light  will  not  catch  the  lines  made 
by  the  brush. 

In  painting  with  oil  colour,  this  must  be  strictly  kept 
from  gathering  on  the  edges,  or  they  will  become  fat.  All 
colour  should  be  well  strained.  Two  things  to  be  carefully 
guarded  against  are  dust  and  damp.  Warm  ventilation 
should  be  obtained  as  far  as  possible,  as  it  is  very  favour¬ 
able  for  paint.  Putty  should  be  of  the  colour  of  the 
gxwmd  to  be  stopped.  It  should  be  rubbed  with  a  rag 
so  as  to  leave  no  rough  edge,  and  well  pressed  in  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  putty  sinking.  The  rebate  and  architrave  should 
be  painted  the  same  colour  as  the  inside  of  the  room. 
Before  use,  a  little  turps  must  be  added  to  any  colour 
having  a  bronze  appearance,  such  as  prussian  blue. 

Mix  paint  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  unless  a  paint 
mill  is  in  use.  It  can  be  mixed  or  ground  up  with  the 
palette  knife  much  quicker  and  better  this  way  than  in 
rubbing  up  more  than  the  knife  can  control. 

In  cleaning  paint,  strong  alkali  should  be  avoided. 
Whiting  is  enough  for  this  purpose,  or  rubbing  with 
pumice-stone.  If  rubbed  with  pumice-stone,  it  will  require 
a  coat  of  paint.  A  very  little  soap  used  with  the  pumice 
'  is  helpful.  In  rubbing  with  the  pumice-stone,  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  taking  the  paint  from  off  the  arris  of  the 
door  or  the  edges  of  the  moulding  ;  once  off  the  edges  it 
is  extremely  difficult  to  get  it  on  again. 

In  a  house  that  is  to  be  renovated  there  are  always 
parts  which  have  sustained  much  wear,  and  others  which 
are  comparatively  fresh.  A  give-and-take  system  should 
be  adopted  by  the  foreman  in  dealing  with  the  work. 
For  instance,  in  a  case  of  general  two-coat  work,  in  some 
places  one  coat  may  be  enough,  in  other  places  three 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


123 


coats  will  be  necessary,  and  the  expense  would  be  equal 
to  that  for  two  coats  all  round.  In  any  case,  only  two 
coats  should  be  applied  to  the  rebates  of  doors. 

The  duster  in  all  the  preparatory  processes  is  very 
important,  for  dust,  like  damp,  is  an  enemy  to  paint. 

In  repainting  a  staircase  wall,  representing  about  120 
sq.  yd.,  to  a  shade  of  green,  if  the  colour,  etc.,  is  procured 
from  a  colour  merchant  (not  an  oil  shop)  the  quantities 
and  the  cost  will  be  as  follows : — 24  lb.  of  white-lead,  5s.  ; 
2  lb.  of  patent  driers,  8d.  ;  1  lb.  of  deep  lemon  chrome, 
Is.  ;  3  lb.  of  deep  brunswick,  2s.  ;  2  oz.  of  drop-black,  3d., 
all  ground  in  oil ;  3  qt.  of  linseed  oil,  Is.  6d.  ;  and  3  qt.  of 
turpentine,  2s.  The  white-lead,  driers,  chrome,  black,  half 
the  green,  and  1  qt.  of  oil  should  be  mixed  well  together, 
after  which  small  quantities  of  the  green  should  be  added 
until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The  paint  should  be 
mixed  lighter  than  the  sample,  as  it  will  dry  darker. 
Divide  the  mixed  colour  into  two  equal  parts.  Thin  one 
part  with  the  oil  so  that  it  works  freely,  and  spread  on  the 
wall  evenly  ;  twenty-four  hours  afterwards  apply  the  re¬ 
maining  portion  of  the  colour,  thinning  with  turpentine  so 
that  it  works  freely  and  covers  well.  The  time  is  an  im¬ 
portant  item  ;  if  the  interval  is  more  or  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours  the  second  coat  will  be  sheary — that  is,  bright 
in  some  places  and  dull  in  others.  If  the  last  coat  is 
stippled  the  result  will  be  a  better  job,  as  stippling  takes 
out  the  brush  marks.  Begin  at  the  top  and  work  down¬ 
wards.  There  may  be  a  little  colour  left  over. 

In  a  varnished  or  polished  door  the  rebates  should  not 
be  polished  or  varnished,  as  varnish  dries  with  difficulty 
in  such  places.  The  current  of  air  running  through  such 
places  stops  the  drying  of  varnish.  For  rebates,  quick 
japan  should  be  used,  and  the  door  wedged  in  till  the 
work  dries.  If  oil  colour  or  varnish  be  used,  it  should 
have  driers,  as  the  rebates  are  so  liable  to  draught  and 
damage.  When  varnishing  is  done  in  the  winter,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  put  driers  in  the  varnish.  Stair-rails  and 
balusters  always  need  driers,  because  of  cold  draughts. 

For  external  painting,  the  coats  of  colour,  as  a  rule, 
are  laid  on  in  a  rounder  condition  than  for  indoor  work. 
When  painting  the  outside  of  a  house,  start  at  the  right- 
hand  corner,  cleaning  out  the  spouting.  Begin  at  the 


124 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


spouting,  following  the  window  sashes  and  panes  down 
the  house,  and  taking  doors  and  shutters  in  due  course. 
In  painting  the  fronts  of  houses,  the  roof  has  to  be  made 
use  of  for  placing  the  scaffolding.  Any  damage  done 
must  be  repaired  at  the  finish  of  the  job,  even  if  a  slater 
has  to  be  called  in. 

A  good  wash  will  sometimes  prove  as  effectual  as  a 
coat  of  paint.  In  one-coat  work,  for  instance,  the  backs  of 
shutters  may  only  require  washing.  Lobbies,  cupboards, 
etc.,  may  be  treated  similarly. 

For  repainting  a  front  door,  first,  if  possible,  take  it  off 
the  hinges,  and  lay  it  on  trestles  in  a  yard.  Burn  off  with 
a  blow-lamp,  taking  care  not  to  char.  A  flat  chisel  knife 
will  take  off  paint  that  has  been  heated  through  by  the 
lamp.  If  the  work  is  very  old,  a  coat  of  turps  will  help  to 
burn  the  paint.  The  surface,  after  being  burnt  off,  should 
be  well  rubbed  with  glasspaper.  If  the  paint  must  be  re¬ 
moved  by  means  of  an  alkali,  which  is  not  recommended 
in  this  case,  use  equal  quantities  of  quicklime  and  soda. 
This  mixture  having  been  applied,  the  work  is  left  to 
pickle  in  it  for  a  few  hours,  when  the  paint  may  be 
scraped  off,  and  the  surface  afterwards  well  swilled  with 
water.  A  soaking  coat  of  vinegar  should  then  be  applied 
to  the  door. 

Before  priming,  the  knots  should  be  either  cut  out  and 
then  filled  with  putty,  or  gilded  with  metal  leaf.  The 
priming  should  be  two-thirds  turps  and  one-third  oil, 
mixed  thin  with  white-lead.  Then  a  coat  of  colour  may  be 
followed  -  by  two  coats  of  filling,  laid  on  with  a  chisel 
knife,  and  pressed  in  level.  A  coat  of  colour,  bound  with 
japanners’  gold-size,  laid  very  level,  and  a  flat  coat  to 
finish,  will  leave  the  door  ready  for  the  varnish.  The 
several  coats  of  colour,  including  the  filling,  should  be 
graded  towards  the  finishing  colour. 

Oil  and  water  must  be  kept  away  from  the  work.  The 
brushes  must  be  kept  in  oil  over-night,  the  oil  being  well 
scraped  out  before  use  in  the  morning.  In  varnishing,  the 
work  must  be  rubbed  down  with  pumice-stone  and  water 
between  the  coats  of  varnish.  If  the  door  is  not  taken 
down,  the  edges,  or  where  the  draught  catches  it,  must  be 
varnished  with  quick-drying  japanners’,  and  the  door  left 
open  till  the  places  are  dry.  Free  use  must  be  made  of 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


125 


pumice-stone  and  spent  glasspaper.  The  aim  from  the 
first  is  to  get  a  solid  colour  and  a  level  surface,  not  to 
get  a  lot  of  colour  on  the  work.  Oil  is  kept  out  to  prevent 
blistering. 

In  painting  a  door,  it  is  best  to  paint  the  panels  and 
mouldings  first,  wiping  off  the  colour  from  the  stiles  with  a 
rag  so  as  not  to  get  two  coats  on  the  edges.  In  laying 
off,  begin  at  the  middle  upright  stile,  then  proceed  to  the 
cross  stiles.  Finish  by  squaring  off  by  the  two  outside 
rails.  The  colour  must  not  be  allowed  to  gather  on  the 
edges. 

In  painting  a  window  from  a  single  ladder,  avoid  shift¬ 
ing  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Set  the  ladder 
squarely  in  the  centre,  and  begin  painting  the  frame  from 
the  bottom,  transferring  the  brush  from  the  right  hand  to 
the  left  when  convenient.  Take  one  colour  from  the  bot¬ 
tom  up  to  the  top,  along  the  top,  and  down  the  remaining 
side. 

In  painting  sashes  which  have  been  removed  from  their 
frames,  set  them  a  convenient  height  to  avoid  stooping, 
letting  them  lean  against  a  wall.  Paint  the  upward  part 
of  the  cross  pieces,  then  the  vertical  part ;  then  reverse 
the  sash,  to  paint  the  under  side.  The  face  of  the  sash 
may  be  painted  last.  Where  the  sash  runs  into  the  frames, 
the  colour  should  be  well  rubbed  out.  No  paint  should  be 
put  on  the  run,  and  afterwards  the  sashes  should  be 
moved  up  and  down  a  number  of  times,  the  inside  beading 
well  wiped  with  a  rag,  and  all  well  scraped  with  a  knife 
before  being  painted. 

New  houses  built  in  the  autumn  should  not  be  painted 
till  the  spring.  The  time  to  paint  the  outside  of  houses 
is  June  and  July.  Time  should  be  allowed  for  the  moisture 
of  the  wdod  to  dry  out  before  painting. 

To  remove  the  smell  of.  the  paint  after  the  work  is 
finished,  place  a  pan  of  lighted  charcoal  in  the  middle 
of  the  floor,  and  throw  a  few  handfuls  of  juniper  berries 
on  it ;  then  close  up  the  room,  and  render  it  as  nearly  as 
possible  air-tight. 

The  choice  of  colours  for  outside  work  is  a  subject  of 
much  importance,  especially  with  respect  to  street  doors. 
Although  the  painter  sometimes  has  the  opportunity  of 
advising  as  to  the  colour  of  such  doors,  it  more  often  hap- 


126 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


pens  that  the  colour  is  chosen  by  the  occupier,  and  green 
is  the  favourite  colour  for  this  purpose.  Now  green  is 
very  apt  to  blister,  as  are  most  of  the  dark  colours,  be¬ 
cause  of  their  excessive  absorption  of  heat.  Lighter 
colours  have  not  this  disadvantage ;  yet,  strangely  enough, 
black  is  probably  the  most  durable  of  all  pigments.  It 
may  be  objected  that  a  front  door  painted  black  looks 
rather  funereal,  but  this  appearance  may  be  avoided  by 
painting  the  mouldings  a  decorative  colour,  or  gilding 
them.  The  reason  for  this  superior  permanency  of  black 
paint  is  that  the  black  absorbs  more  oil  than  the  white. 

Pure  and  brilliant  pigments  should  be  used  for  outside 
work.  The  exceptionally  strong  tinting-  powers  of  some 
of  the  colours  should  be  taken  into  account  when  mixing  ; 
for  if  these  strong  colours  are  used  too  liberally  more 
white  is  required,  and  thus  too  much  colour  is  made  up, 
and  is  possibly  wasted.  As  instances  of  tinting  power, 
it  may  .be  mentioned  that  1  lb.  of  indian  red  or  chrome 
yellow  will  perceptibly  tint  a  ton  of  white-lead,  and  that 
1  part  of  prussian  blue  will  similarly  affect  5,000  parts  of 
turpentine. 

For  the  finishing  coat  for  outside  work  turps  is  either 
not  used  at  all  or  used  very  sparingly — to  assist  the  oil 
in  cold  weather,  for  instance,  and  to  help  to  harden  the 
paint. 

Each  successive  coat  of  colour  should  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  tint  of  the  finishing  colour,  whether  the 
gradation  is  from  dark  to  light  or  from  light  to  dark. 
Light  colours  work  better  over  darker  colours,  although 
it  is  popularly  supposed  that  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

Lampblack,  and  the  oxides  of  iron,  such  as  Venetian 
red,  indian  red,  and  the  ochres,  are  good  colours  for  out¬ 
side  wear,  and  are  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than 
the  umbers,  but  turkey  umber  and  turkey  red  rank  next 
to  yellow  ochre  and  lampblack  for  outside  work  in  good  oil. 

For  brickwork  or  stucco,  paint  is  all  the  better  for 
standing  a  day  or  two  after  it  has  been  mixed.  It  should 
contain  plenty  of  oil,  and  be  well  rubbed~out  when  applied. 

In  the  case  of  ready-ground  oil  colour,  beat  up  the 
colour  in  the  can,  adding  small  quantities  of  thinners 
at  a  time.  No  dry  colour  can  be  properly  mixed  by 
stirring  only.  It  must  be  rubbed  up  with  the  palette 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


127 


knife  or  spatula,  or  ground  in  a  mill.  On  plaster,  two 
coats  of  boiled  oil  make  a  good  preparation  for  painting. 

Stucco,  instead  of  being  painted,  is  sometimes  washed 
down  with  Portland  cement  made  into  a  thin  paint  with 
plain  water,  the  bad  places  having  been  first  mended  with 
Portland  cement.  Sulphate  of  iron,  used  in  water,  gives 
an  effective  yellow  colour  to  brickwork  that  is  to  be  after¬ 
wards  pointed. 

For  outside  painting  generally,  two  coats  of  paint  are 
needed,  one  penetrating,  the  other  round  and  glossy — the 
first  coat  thin  and  penetrating,  to  revive  the  decayed  under 
coat,  or  to  act  as  priming ;  the  second  coat  put  on  thick 
and  rubbed  out  thin.  September,  October,  and  November 
are  considered  to  be  the  best  months  of  the  year  for  out¬ 
door  painting. 

Bad  places  require  two  coats  of  priming,  for  bricks  or 
stucco.  After  priming,  fill  up  the  bad  places  with  putty. 
The  second  coat  may  be  one-third  turps,  to  give  penetra¬ 
tion.  The  third  coat  may  consist  almost  entirely  of  boiled 
oil.  For  a  flat  finish,  another  coat,  consisting  of  three- 
quarters  turps,  will  be  required.  To  destroy  the  white 
exudation,  caused  by  alkaline  salts,  from  brickwork, 
wash  it  down  with  acidulated  water  or  vinegar,  soaking 
the  surface  well.  As  bricks  are  very  absorbent,  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  ascertain  that  they  are  dry  before  painting  them  ; 
hence  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  paint  brickwork 
during  a  rainy  season  or  shortly  after.  Poorly  burnt  bricks 
absorb  a  vast  quantity  of  paint. 

In  all  cases  the  aim  should  be  to  get  an  equal  suction 
in  a  ground,  as  well  as  a  uniform  colour.  For  priming 
to  be  effectual,  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  the  surface  with 
a  full  brush  until  the  work  will  not  absorb  more  oil — that 
is,  until  all  suction  is  stopped.  The  paint  should  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  in,  and  well  covered.  The  painter 
must  never  rely  on  the  second  coat  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiencies  of  the  first. 

In  many  large  American  cities,  such  as  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  it  is  customary  to  paint  most 
brickwork  as  soon  as  it  is  built,  and  afterwards  periodically. 
It  is  claimed  that  this  treatment  greatly  increases  its 
durability  and  improves  its  appearance.  Ordinary  bricks, 
however,  like  London  stocks,  are  usually  too  porous  to  be 


128 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


painted  successfully,  but  with  bricks  of  closer  texture  a 
very  neat  job  may  be  made  by  observing  the  following  con¬ 
ditions  : — 

Choose  a  time  of  the  year  when  the  brickwork  is  dry. 
First  thoroughly  clean  down  the  surface,  using  firebrick  to 
rub  it  with  ;  then  apply  the  first  coat  of  priming,  which 
may  consist  of  old  paint  ground  up  with  oak  varnish, 
or  of  oxide  of  iron  paint  mixed  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and 
a  little  driers.  It  is  necessary  to  apply  this  coat  freely, 
and  to  brush  it  well  in.  After  the  priming  coat  is  quite 
dry,  the  joints  and  holes  in  the  surface  should  be  filled  up 
with  putty,  which  may  be  ordinary  putty  made  of  whiting 
and  pure  linseed  oil  coloured  with  Venetian  red  or  yellow 
ochre ;  but  a  harder  putty  is  obtained  by  adding  a  pro¬ 
portion  of  white-lead  and  mixing  it  well  in  with  the 
whiting  and  oil.  The  paint  subsequently  applied  is  either 
Venetian  red  or  yellow  ochre,  according  to  the  finish  re¬ 
quired.  Every  pigment  is  mixed  with  linseed  oil  and  a 
little  varnish  to  assist  in  binding.  As  a  rule,  the  best  re¬ 
sults  are  obtained  by  finishing  the  work  without  gloss, 
very  little  oil  being  used  with  the  last  coat. 

The  object  in  painting  brickwork  is  to  obtain,  by  means 
of  the  putty  and  paint,  a  perfectly  level  surface  without 
any  marks  or  indications  of  mortar  joints.  When  it  is 
desired  to  represent  these  joints,  white  lines  are  painted 
in  by  means  of  little  brushes,  very  similar  in  appearance 
to  tooth-brushes,  called  seamers  and  liners.  The  seams 
or  horizontal  joints  are  first  painted  in,  usually  in  white 
paint,  using  a  straightedge  as  a  guide.  The  vertical  joints 
are  then  filled  in  by  hand,  marks  made  on  the  straightedge 
indicating  the  respective  widths  of  headers  and  stretchers. 
A  typical  instance  of  the  value  of  painting  on  brickwork 
is  that  of  an  arch  that  has  been  set  with  bad  mortar.  In 
such  a  case  repointing  would  only  make  the  matter  worse, 
as  the  new  pointing  soon  drops  out.  The  arch,  however,  if 
primed,  thoroughly  well  puttied,  and  then  painted  and 
lined  in  the  way  described,  will  present  a  decent  appear¬ 
ance,  and  retain  it  for  a  considerable  period. 

One  of  the  great  troubles  which  a  painter  has  to  en¬ 
counter  is  damp,  and  the  only  way  to  conquer  this  is 
first  to  ascertain  the  cause.  Water  will  find  its  way 
through  everything,  and  if  stopped  one  way  will  find 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


129 


another.  Sometimes  it  arises  from  condensation,  in  which 
case  fires  and  a  system  of  ventilation  are  the  only  pre¬ 
ventives  ;  in  fact,  the  cure  of  chronic  dampness  in  a  house 
necessitates  structural  alteration.  In  the  case  of  the  in¬ 
side  of  a  wall  which  is  exposed  to  rain,  or  where  the  sub¬ 
soil  is  damp,  pitched  paper  has  been  tried.  The  Willesden 
waterproof  paper  is  also  used,  but  a  damp-proof  course 
just  above  the  ground  is  best.  The  removal  of  a  course 
of  bricks,  and  the  insertion  of  damp-proof  material  in  its 
place,  is  a  permanent  remedy. 

When  dampness  occurs  from  the  weather  beating 
against  the  side  of  the  house,  or  if  the  house  is  built  of 
porous  bricks  which  absorb  the  rain,  cementing  the  side 
of  the  house  or  slating  it  has  been  found  a  suitable 
remedy.  Most  of  the  mixtures  recommended  for  a  wall 
which  is  damp  from  a  wet  foundation,  or  from  exposure  to 
rain,  are  at  best  but  temporary.  It  is  certain  that  what¬ 
ever  is  put  on  the  surface  of  the  damp  wall  only  leaves 
the  body  of  the  wall  still  wet ;  and  as  the  tendency  of  all 
moisture  is  towards  the  warmth,  any  paint  on  the  warm 
side  is  sure  to  blister,  decay,  and  shell  off.  If  the  damp¬ 
ness  arises  from  bad  spouting,  repair  the  spouting.  A 
trench  along  the  wall,  and  pipes  to  carry  the  water  away, 
will  greatly  help. 

When  the  water  cannot  be  stopped,  convey  it  away  ; 
then  thoroughly  dry  the  wall  by  opening  the  windows  and 
keeping  good  fires  in  the  rooms,  thus  completely  drying 
the  damp  place  ;  then  apply  a  coat  of  patent  knotting, 
which  will  interpose  a  film  of  shellac  between  the  wall  and 
the  paint.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  give  the  damp  place,  after 
the  knotting,  a  coat  of  bottoms,  which  is  composed  of  the 
dregs  of  varnish  and  smudge  ;  put  it  through  the  mill  and 
well  strain  it.  This  is  always  an  excellent  priming  for  any 
plaster  work,  besides  using  up  the  waste  of  the  paint-shop. 
If  the  stucco  wall  is  in  good  condition,  it  is  frequently 
painted  or  distempered  after  washing  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  or  vinegar. 


i 


130 


CHAPTER  XI. 

VARNISH  AND  VARNISHING. 

The  painter  probably  has  to  deal  with  no  material  that 
requires  such  a  large  amount  of  care  and  skill  in  its 
selection  and  application  as  varnish,  and  probably  there 
is  none  of  his  materials  that  the  painter  knows  so  little 
about. 

Varnish  should  be  carefully  selected  for  the  particular 
work  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  as  it  is  now  made  from  a 
great  variety  of  oils  and  gums,  and  in  various  grades,  suit¬ 
able  for  various  kinds  and  conditions  of  work. 

Oil  varnishes  are  the  most  durable,  especially  for  ex¬ 
terior  work,  but  they  take  some  little  time  to  dry  properly. 
Spirit  and  turpentine  varnishes  are  made  from  the  soft 
gums,  and  are  only  fit  for  interior  work,  being  chiefly  used 
in  cabinetmaking  and  work  of  a  similar  character. 

Varnishes  are  made  by  combining  certain  oils  (or 
alcohol)  with  resinous  gums,  and  are  used  for  making  pig¬ 
ments  hold  out  to  their  full  brilliance,  and  also  to  give  a 
transparent  coating  of  a  protective  character.  The  fact 
that  varnish  is  added  over  paint  to  increase  its  hardness 
of  surface,  to  hasten  its  drying,  and  to  increase  the  lustre 
of  the  colour,  makes  it  unnecessary  where  the  pigments 
have  been  mixed  with  good  linseed  oil,  which  is  in  itself 
of  a  varnish-like  nature  ;  but  for  marbling,  graining,  or 
flat  colours,  finishing  coats  of  varnish  are  desirable. 
Different  makes  of  varnish  vary  greatly  in  quality,  and  it 
is  therefore  advisable  to  obtain  or  specify  that  of  the 
best-known  makers. 

Cheap  varnish  has  usually  no  durable  qualities,  and  will 
be  found  to  perish  quickly.  A  kind  of  white  bloom  will 
generally  be  found  on  work  finished  with  a  cheap  varnish. 
Common  varnish  also  destroys  any  coat  of  good  varnish 
that  may  be  put  over  it ;  therefore  all  varnish  work  done 
with  inferior  material  should  be  burnt  off  (or  otherwise 
effectually  removed)  before  varnish  of  good  quality  is; 
applied. 


VARNISH  AND  VARNISHING. 


131 


The  chief  qualities  of  a  good  varnish  are — (1)  rapidity 
and  hardness  in  drying  and  freedom  from  stickiness,  even 
when  slightly  heated  ;  (2)  elasticity  when  dry,  to  prevent 
cracking  or  curling  ;  (3)  durability  and  (especially  for  out¬ 
side  work)  indifference  to  the  effects  of  moisture  and  other 
atmospheric  conditions ;  (4)  tenacity  in  adhering  to  the 
material  to  which  it  is  applied  ;  (5)  ability  to  present  and 
preserve  an  even,  smooth,  and  hard  surface  ;  (6)  good  flow¬ 
ing  or  working  properties  ;  (7)  good  colour,  with  no  tend¬ 
ency  to  darken  on  exposure  ;  (8)  lustrous,  glassy  surface, 
free  from  tack,  and  without  tendency  to  bloom. 

One  method  of  testing  the  elasticity  of  a  varnish  is 
to  apply  two  coats  of  the  varnish  to  a  sheet  of  parch¬ 
ment  or  linen,  and  allow  it  to  dry  thoroughly,  and  then 
try  its  flexibility,  or  tendency  to  chip  or  curl  off,  by 
crumpling  the  parchment  or  linen  between  the  hands. 
The  most  practical  method  (if  time  permits)  for  testing 
the  durability  of  outside  varnish  is  to  apply  two  or  three 
coats  to  a  prepared  board,  and  expose  it  in  the  open  air 
for  several  months. 

Speaking  generally,  it  is  best  not  to  tamper  with  var¬ 
nishes  by  mixing  or  thinning  them,  as  varnishes  from 
different  makers  are  prepared  by  different  processes  or 
under  dissimilar  conditions,  and  are  therefore  apt  to  be 
mutually  destructive  if  mixed  together,  the  lustre,  and 
hard-drying  properties  being  lost.  Some  painters  put 
boiled  linseed  oil  into  varnish.  Free  turps  or  raw  oil 
should  never  be  added  ;  but  whatever  is  used,  the  drying 
properties  of  the  varnish  are  retarded,  and  it  is  also  liable 
to  run.  Tarnish  thinned  with  turpentine  dries  with  an  un¬ 
even  gloss,  or  altogether  without  gloss,  and  is  liable  to 
crack.  Turpentine  also  impairs  its  wearing  properties. 

The  practice  of  keeping  varnish  for  a  time  before  using 
does  not  apply  to  spirit  varnish,  which  deteriorates  if  kept 
very  long.  Oil  varnishes  improve  with  age  up  to  a  certain 
limit  on  account  of  a  more  intimate  union  taking  place  be¬ 
tween  the  oil  and  resins  used  in  its  manufacture. 

Varnishes  usually  dry  with  a  high  gloss.  The  oil  var¬ 
nishes  dry  by  oxidation  of  the  oil,  and  form  a  transparent 
elastic  skin  over  the  work.  Hard  varnishes  are  made  for 
inside  work,  and  elastic  varnishes  for  outside  work.  Flak¬ 
ing  varnishes,  encaustic  or  dead  varnishes,  or  matt  var- 


132 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


nishes,  are  supplied  by  some  manufacturers  for  producing 
dull  or  lustreless  surfaces,  but  this  effect  may  be  produced 
by  mixing  varnish  with  the  last  coat  of  paint.  Matt  var¬ 
nish  may  be  prepared  by  adding  white  wax  to  copal  var¬ 
nish,  and  thinning  it  with  turpentine.  The  degree  of  dead¬ 
ness  is  governed  by  the  quantity  of  wax  added. 

Gold-size  is  also  used  for  mixing  with  turpentine  and 
pigment  to  produce  a  quick-drying  and  dead-surfaced 
paint,  and  as  a  surface  for  gold-leaf. 

Hand-polishing  is  a  term  applied  to  a  superior  finish 
sometimes  given  to  first-class  work.  After  the  requisite 
number  of  coats  have  been  applied,  the  work  is  rubbed 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  the  ball  of  the  thumb  being 
used  for  the  mouldings.  The  hand  must  be  frequently 
passed  over  a  moist  washleather  to  obtain  sufficient 
moisture  to  allow  the  hand  to  be  moved  lightly  but  firmly 
over  the  work  to  increase  its  lustre.  The  term  hand¬ 
polishing  is  also  applied  to  a  method  of  rubbing  the  work 
with  silk  pads,  rottenstone,  crocus,  tripoli,  or  precipitated 
chalk,  and  sweet  oil  or  water,  according  to  the  finish, 
shine,  or  gloss  required. 

The  conditions  necessary  to  ensure  satisfactory  work 
in  varnishing  are  numerous.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  All  floors  should  be  washed  and  allowed  to 
dry  thoroughly  before  being  varnished.  Each  coat  of  var¬ 
nish  should  be  allowed  to  harden  thoroughly.  The  first 
coat  must  stand  for  a  few  days  to  get  hard,  and  may  then 
be  rubbed  down  with  spent  glasspaper,  felt,  or  pumice- 
powder  and  water,  till  the  face  of  the  varnish  is  deadened. 
The  work  is  then  left  for  twenty-four  hours  to  get  hard 
before  another  coat  is  applied.  The  work  should  be  kept 
dry  and  free  from  grease,  dust,  and  draughts.  A  uniform 
temperature  of  about  60°  F.  should  be  obtained,  with  a  dry 
atmosphere. 

The  brush,  and  the  pot  containing  the  varnish,  must  be 
perfectly  clean.  The  varnish  must  be  carefully  poured  out 
of  the  side  of  the  can  into  the  pot  to  avoid  air  bubbles, 
and  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  in  a  warm  place  free 
from  draughts  for  an  hour  or  so  before  using.  The  tips 
only  of  the  brushes  should  be  dipped  into  the  varnish, 
which  should  be  laid  on  freely,  with  the  least  possible 
amount  of  brushwork  ;  and,  once  it  is  evenly  laid,  it  should 


VARNISH  AND  VARNISHING. 


133 


not  be  retouched.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  varnish 
does  not  gather  at  the  quirks  and  angles. 

Varnish  may  with  considerable  advantage  be  kept  in  a 
warm  place  several  days  before  using.  The  surface  to  be 
treated  may  be  gone  over  with  a  wet  sponge  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  fuller’s  earth — 2  oz.  of  fuller’s  earth  to  about 
1  qt.  of  water — and  afterwards  dried  with  a  washleather 
before  applying  the  varnish. 

Most  varnishes  deposit  sediment  or  settlings,  hence  the 
“bottoms”  of  a  varnish  can  should  not  be  used  for  first- 
class  work.  Varnish  should  be  stored  on  a  shelf  above  the 
ground,  in  an  equable  temperature. 

Woodwork  is  sized  before  varnishing  in  order  to  fill 
up  the  pores  and  prevent  the  varnish  from  being  ab¬ 
sorbed  into  the  fibre  and  producing  a  dead  surface.  Con¬ 
centrated  size  may  be  used,  as  sold  at  most  of  the  shops 
which  supply  painters’  materials,  or  by  the  firms  advertis¬ 
ing  the  article. 

Pitchpine  is  the  wood  that  is  most  often  varnished  in 
its  natural  state — that  is,  without  being  stained  or  painted. 
It  is  usually  given  two  coats  of  size  before  varnishing  to 
prevent  suction.  The  number  of  coats  of  varnish  and  the 
degree  of  finish  are  largely  governed  by  the  price  of  the 
job. 

Such  woods  as  oak  and  teak  require  a  great  deal  of 
attention  in  filling  up  the  pores  ;  they  are  what  are  termed 
hungry  woods — that  is,  coarse  and  open-grained.  The 
methods  adopted  for  filling-in  these  woods  vary  in  different 
localities.  In  America,  patent  fillers  and  shellac  are 
largely  used  for  the  purpose.  In  some  districts  the  filler 
consists  of — (1)  whiting  and  fine  pumice-powder,  tinted  and 
made  into  a  paste  with  turps  ;  (2)  repeated  coats  of  var¬ 
nish  applied  to  the  work,  and  each  coat  cut  to  a  dead 
level  with  pumice-powder  and  water  before  the  next  coat 
is  applied ;  (3)  several  coats  of  linseed  oil  and  turps  in 
equal  parts ;  (4)  a  mixture  of  boiled  oil,  finely  powdered 
whiting,  and  cornflour,  mixed  into  a  paste  with  turps. 
When  fillers  are  used,  a  varnish  specially  made  for  such 
work  should  be  used. 

Woodwork  intended  to  be  varnished  requires  extra  care 
in  its  preparation  to  ensure  a  smooth  surface.  The  fourth 
coat  of  paint  should  have  a  hard  dull  finish.  For  delicate 


134- 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


tints,  pale  copal  varnish  may  be  applied.  After  each  coat 
of  varnish  the  work  should  be  felted  down  with  pumice- 
powder  to  remove  all  inequalities.  This  rubbing  down, 
although  expensive,  makes  the  work  very  durable ;  but 
it  should  not  be  done  on  unseasoned  woodwork. 

Too  much  red-lead  should  not  be  used  in  the  priming 
of  work  to  be  varnished,  or  it  will  be  found  to  affect  the 
gloss. 

Woodwork  intended  to  be  stained  and  varnished  should 
be  prepared  very  carefully ;  if  glasspapered,  only  fine 
glasspaper  should  be  used,  and  rubbed  the  way  of  the  grain 
only.  Water  stain  raises  the  grain  of  the  wood,  while  oil 
stain  does  not,  but  the  water  stain  is  much  clearer  than 
oil  stain,  and  does  not  hide  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Water 
stain  is  best  applied  before  sizing  the  work,  especially  if 
Stephens’  stains  are  used.  The  size  used  must  be  very 
weak,  and  must  not  be  allowed  to  froth  or  gather  at  the 
corners,  or  it  will  work  up  when  the  water  stain  is  applied. 
Black  beer  (porter)  used  in  the  place  of  size  gives  very 
good  results,  but  it  is  desirable  to  sponge  the  work  over 
with  hot  water  to  raise  the  grain,  and,  when  thoroughly 
dry,  carefully  glasspaper  down  before  the  stain  is  applied. 
This  method  gives  excellent  results. 

In  preparing  the  woodwork,  glue  or  other  foreign  sub¬ 
stances  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  work, 
or  the  stain  will  not  take,  white  patches  being  the  result. 
In  panelled  work,  the  panels,  if  left  “  square,”  should  be 
stained  before  the  work  is  wedged  up  ;  for  if  shrinkage 
afterwards  occurs  white  lines  will  appear.  If  the  work  is 
to  be  moulded  it  may  be  wedged  up,  cleaned  off,  and 
stained,  and  the  mouldings  put  in  afterwards.  This  pre¬ 
vents  any  white  lines  showing  should  the  moulding  or 
panels  shrink.  All  nail  holes,  etc.,  in  woodwork  to  be 
coloured  with  water  stain  should  be  stopped  with  plaster- 
of-paris.  With  oil  stain,  common  putty  coloured  to  match 
the  woodwork  may  be  used.  The  work  may  also  be  sized 
before  it  is  stained. 

In  applying  the  stain,  good  results  have  been  obtained 
by  first  applying  it  with  a  brush  and  then  carefully  going 
over  it  with  a  soft  rag  in  the  form  of  a  large  pad,  as  for 
french-polishing.  Too  much  should  not  be  done  at  once 
before  beginning  to  wipe  off,  or  if  a  quick  drying  stain  is 


VARNISH  AND  VARNISHING. 


135 


used  it  will  be  difficult  to  wipe  off  and  obtain  a  good 
effect.  The  wiping-off  method  prevents  any  streaky  ap¬ 
pearance  such  as  sometimes  occurs  when  the  brush  alone 
is  used.  It  also  facilitates  the  obtaining  of  a  uniform 
colour  throughout  the  work.  If  the  work  contains  much 
end  grain,  it  is  advisable  to  size  it  before  staining,  as  the 
end  grain  takes  the  stain  much  deeper  than  the  other 
parts  of  the  work.  Water  stain  should  never  be  used  for 
floors ;  oil  stain  applied  without  the  work  having  been 
sized  is  far  more  durable.  A  stained  and  varnished  floor 
does  not  harbour  dust,  and  is  therefore  a  great  advantage 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  varnished  surface  has  to 
be  polished.  If  spirit  varnish  has  been  used,  this  can 
readily  be  done,  although  it-  is  advisable  (if  the  work  has 
been  varnished  some  time)  first  to  wipe  the  surface  over 
with  raw  linseed  oil,  to  give  a  better  grip  to  the  polish. 
In  polishing  over  oil  varnish,  it  is  advisable  to  dull  the 
surface  with  pumice-powder  and  apply  a  coat  of  glaze 
before  starting  to  polish. 

In  painted  work  intended  to  be  varnished,  the  finishing 
coat  of  colour  should  be  flat.  Nothing  is  more  durable 
than  a  coat  of  good  varnish.  Beautiful  effects  may  often 
be  produced  by  glazing. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  silk,  cotton,  or  oily 
waste  saturated  with  varnish,  turpentine,  or  oil,  are  liable 
to  spontaneous  combustion. 

Varnish  has  many  eccentricities  or  peculiarities,  such  as 
pitting,  pinholing,  or  sissing ;  cracking,  sanding,  bloom¬ 
ing,  blistering,  tackiness,  flatting,  sweating,  creeping,  flak¬ 
ing,  or  peeling. 

The  pitting,  pinholing,  or  sissing  of  varnish  is  the 
formation  of  little  holes  in  the  varnish  when  applied.  It 
may  be  caused  through  (1)  damp  atmosphere  ;  (2)  the  pre¬ 
sence  of  turps  ;  (3)  the  varnish  not  having  settled  ;  (4)  con¬ 
tact  with  ammonia  fumes  ;  (5)  varnishing  over  a  moist  or 
sweaty  surface  ;  (6)  an  uneven  temperature  being  set  up 
during  drying  ;  (7)  varnishing  over  a  greasy  surface ;  (8) 
pouring  the  varnish  out  of  the  can  in  an  improper  manner, 
causing  air  bubbles  in  it ;  (9)  tampering  with  the  varnish, 
as  by  adding  driers,  turps,  etc.  ;  (10)  applying  too  much 
varnish  and  not  laying  it  off  properly. 


136 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


Most  of  the  above  peculiarities  can  be  prevented  by — (1) 
cleansing  the  work  with  stale  ale  diluted  with  water,  with 
diluted  vinegar,  or  with  a  coat  of  weak  size — the  effect  of 
these  agents  depends  on  the  amount  of  the  deposit  and 
the  length  of  time  they  have  been  deposited ;  (2)  damping 
down  the  surface  with  a  sponge  or  chamois  leather ;  (3) 
obtaining  an  even  temperature  whilst  applying  the  var¬ 
nish  ;  (4)  allowing  the  varnish  to  settle  or  stand  for  an 
hour  or  so  in  a  warm  place  before  using,  so  that  the  gases 
in  it  may  escape. 

Cracking  is  generally  caused  by  the  superior  elasticity 
of  the  coat  of  varnish  underneath,  or  by  the  paint  not 
being  thoroughly  dry  ;  by  smoke  fumes,  or  by  change  of 
temperature.  Varnish  often  cracks  on  marbled  papers 
through  drying  too  quickly,  err  not  being  sufficiently  elastic, 
the  nature  of  the  two  materials  being  different.  Cracking 
may  be  remedied  by  rubbing  down  the  work  and  giving  it 
another  coat.  Varnish  is  less  liable  to  crack  when  applied 
on  an  under  coat  of  good  quality  shellac.  Dilution  with 
turpentine  will  also  cause  varnish  to  crack. 

Sanding  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  grainy  or  spotted  ap¬ 
pearance,  caused  by  (1)  using  varnish  of  a  too  new  manu¬ 
facture  ;  (2)  dust  collected  by  the  varnish  from  the  air, 
as  pumice  dust,  etc.  ;  (3)  dirty  brushes ;  (4)  change  of 
temperature,  or  a  chill ;  (5)  using  varnish  which  has  been 
stored  in  imperfectly  closed  vessels  ;  (6)  or  by  the  driers 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  varnish,  which  may  coagu¬ 
late  and  form  hard  particles  that  become  distributed  over 
the  work  by  the  brush.  Hard  particles  of  varnish  may  also 
form  in  the  butt-end  of  the  brush,  and  these  will  eventually 
work  down  the  brush  into  the  work. 

Blooming  or  clouding  of  varnish  occurs  in  the  form  of  a 
whitish  film,  and  may  be  caused  by  varnishing  in  a  moist 
atmosphere,  by  smoke  or  gas  fumes,  by  a  draught,  by  sud¬ 
den  changes  of  atmosphere,  by  varnishing  in  too  low  a 
temperature,  or  by  the  surface  of  the  work  being  colder 
than  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  thus  causing  the  varnish 
to  chill.  Blooming  is  also  caused  by  allowing  fog  to  settle 
on  the  work,  or  the  work  itself  may  be  damp  and  dirty. 
The  vapour  arising  from  a  damp  floor  will  also  cause 
varnish  to  bloom.  Varnish  which  has  been  left  uncorked 
for  some  time,  oi  which  has  been  stored  in  a  cold  damp 


VARNISH  AND  VARNISHING. 


137 


place  until  it  has  become  chilled,  will  also  bloom.  To 
avoid  blooming,  the  work  must  be  freely  ventilated  (with¬ 
out  draught)  to  hasten  the  drying  as  far  as  possible.  Damp 
will  sometimes  cause  the  varnish  to  turn  blue  or  green. 

The  bloom  may  sometimes  be  removed  by  rubbing  the 
varnish  down  with  a  mixture  of  oil  and  vinegar,  and 
thoroughly  wiping  the  surface  dry  ;  or  the  varnish  may  re¬ 
quire  to  be  rubbed  down  with  pumice-powder  and  re  var¬ 
nished. 

Heat  causes  varnish  to  become  thin,  whilst  cold  will 
cause  it  to  thicken. 

Spots  will  frequently  be  found  on  exterior  work  after  a 
shower  of  rain.  The  evaporation  of  the  moisture  by  dry¬ 
ing  causes  these  spots  to  disappear.  White  spots  appear¬ 
ing  on  varnished  surfaces  may  generally  be  removed  by 
pressing  them  with  a  cloth  saturated  with  alcohol. 

Blistering  of  varnish  may  be  caused  by  undue  heat,  by 
the  presence  of  oil  or  grease  under  the  varnish,  by  soft 
under  coats,  or  by  moisture  in  the  wood,  paint,  or  varnish. 

Varnished  work  remaining  tacky,  or  not  drying,  is 
often  due  to  some  defect  in  the  varnish,  in  which  case  it 
is  best  to  remove  it  and  apply  a  coat  of  varnish  of  ascer¬ 
tained  good  quality.  The  tackiness,  however,  may  occa¬ 
sionally  be  due  to  the  work  having  been  washed  down  with 
soap  instead  of  soda  ;  or  the  varnish  may  have  been  ex¬ 
posed  uncorked  for  an  unreasonable  length  of  time  before 
being  applied  ;  or,  again,  the  fault  may  be  due  to  a  dirty 
brush.  A  rather  expensive  remedy  is  to  apply  two  or 
three  coats  of  good  spirit  varnish,  or  a  coat  of  terebene 
and  one  of  varnish. 

Flatting  may  be  due  to  soft  or  absorbent  under  coats, 
or  to  the  varnish  having  been  unevenly  rubbed  out ;  or  it 
may  be  caused  by  mixing  two  grades  of  varnish  together, 
by  a  faulty  preparation  of  the  surface,  the  wood  not  being 
thoroughly  dry  when  varnished,  or  by  tampering  with  the 
varnish  by  mixing  oil  or  turpentine  with  it. 

Sweating  is  generally  caused  by  using  fat  varnishes 
(that  is,  varnishes  that  have  been  allowed  to  thicken  in 
the  containing  vessel),  or  varnishing  a  moist  surface  ;  it 
may  usually  be  prevented  by  allowing  the  surface  to  dry 
or  harden  for  a  few  hours  before  varnishing  the  work. 

Creeping  may  be  the  fault  of  the  workman  in  apply- 


138 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


ing  the  varnish ;  or  it  may  be  caused  by  oily  patches  on 
the  surface  of  the  work,  by  touching  the  work  with  wet 
hands,  by  varnishing  in  too  low  a  temperature,  by  using 
the  brush  too  much,  or  by  the  presence  of  turpentine. 

Flaking  or  peeling  may  be  caused  by  applying  varnish 
to  an  unsuitable  or  damp  surface ;  or  by  the  paint  being 
too  thick,  or  not  being  quite  dry  when  the  varnish  is 
applied. 

Finger  marks  may  be  removed  from  varnished  work  by 
saturating  a  piece  of  chamois  leather  with  sweet  oil  and 
applying  it  gently  to  the  marks.  Paint  spots  may  be  re¬ 
moved  by  touching  them  with  kerosene,  and  afterwards 
rubbing  them  with  sweet  oil. 

Dull  varnished  surfaces  may  sometimes  be  brightened 
by  washing  them  with  clean  cold  water  or  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  vinegar,  turpentine,  and  raw  linseed  oil, 
and  finally  polishing  them  with  a  chamois  or  piece  of  soft 
flannel.  Another  mixture  consists  of  1  gill  of  spirits  of 
wine,  1  pt.  of  raw  oil,  1  gill  of  vinegar,  and  1  oz.  of  butter 
of  antimony.  This  mixture  should  be  applied  very 
quickly.  A  vigorous  rubbing  with  leather,  however,  is  a 
more  desirable  means  of  heightening  the  lustre  of  varnish 
than  the  use  of  the  above  mixtures. 

Advice  on  the  selection  and  care  of  varnish  brushes 
is  given  in  Chapter  II.,  p.  31. 

Various  mixtures  may  be  used  for  removing  old  var¬ 
nish.  The  following  removers  all  require  to  be  well 
washed  off  with  plenty  of  clean  water,  and  previous  to 
the  application  of  any  fresh  paint  or  varnish  the  work 
should  be  brushed  over  with  common  malt  vinegar,  to 
neutralise  any  trace  of  acid  that  may  be  left  after  wash¬ 
ing.  One  composition  may  be  made  as  follows:  20  lb.  of 
solution  of  caustic  soda  of  40  B.,  1  lb.  of  potato  starch, 
and  20  pt.  of  water  are  introduced  into  a  closed  boiler. 
The  mixture  being  thoroughly  agitated  effects  spontane¬ 
ous  heating,  with  conversion  into  a  gelatinous  mass.  This 
is  treated  with  67f  pt.  of  water  and  lj  lb.  of  potato 
starch,  to  form  a  total  weight  of  100  lb.  of  final  product. 
This  mixture  is  reducible  by  water  to  any  desired  percent¬ 
age  of  alkali.  An  emulsion  may  be  formed  of  2  parts  of 
ammonia  to  1  part  of  turpentine  well  mixed  together  in  a 
suitable  vessel. 


VARNISH  AND  VAIINISIIING. 


139 


Another  composition  consists  of  freshly  slaked  hot  lime- 
wash,  to  each  bucketful  of  which  are  added  2  lb.  or  3  lb. 
of  common  washing  soda  and  a  pennyworth  of  rock  am¬ 
monia.  Still  another  composition  consists  of  ^  lb.  of 
American  potash,  \  lb.  of  soft  soap,  \  lb.  of  rock  am¬ 
monia,  1  lb.  of  washing  soda,  and  1  gal.  of  water. 

In  applying  these  varnish  removers,  fibre  brushes  should 
be  used,  as  the  stuff  soons  rots  a  brush  made  of  bristles. 

Varnish  removers  containing  potash,  lime,  or  soda,  if 
used  on  hard  woods  such  as  mahogany,  oak,  etc.,  turn 
them  very  dark,  but  the  colour  can  be  restored  by  fre¬ 
quent  applications  of  oxalic  acid  diluted  with  water. 


140 


CHAPTER  XII. 

STAINS  AND  STAINING. 

Staining  is  the  application  of  colouring  without  obscuring 
the  grain  or  texture  of  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied. 
For  oil  staining  the  more  transparent  oil  colours,  as  the 
siennas,  the  aniline  and  cochineal  lakes,  etc.,  are  used; 
for  varnish  staining,  varnish  is  used  in  ad’dition  to  the 
above-mentioned  pigments,  in  order  to  secure  a  polished 
surface.  Spirit  staining  is  the  use  of  certain  dyes  that 
mix  better  in  spirit  than  in  oil  or  water.  Substances  with¬ 
out  body  and  soluble  in  water — such  as  gamboge,  walnut 
juice,  turmeric,  the  aniline  dyes,  etc. — are  applied  as 
water  stains.  Wax  stains  are  a  mixture  of  beeswax  and 
turpentine  with  pigments  like  Vandyke  brown  and  burnt 
sienna,  the  work  being  polished  with  a  hard  brush  or  coarse 
jute  canvas.  Woods  should  be  sized  before  or  after  apply¬ 
ing  the  first  coat  of  varnish.  Boiled  linseed  oil  applied  to 
wood  brings  out  the  lustre  and  beauty  of  the  grain. 

A  large  number  of  stains  can  be  used  for  the  decorative 
colouring  of  light  woods.  Stephens’  stains  are  admirable  ; 
and  to  these  may  be  added  the  numerous  aniline  stains, 
which  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  alkaline  and  the 
acid — these  must  not  be  mixed.  As  a  rule  these  stains 
are  too  bright ;  the  wood  dyes  are  richer  and  not  so  gay. 
The  transparent  pigments  also  are  useful  as  wood  stains, 
brunswick  black  thinned  out  being  sometimes  used  for 
this  purpose.  If  laid  directly  upon  the  wood,  stains  are 
liable  to  present  an  uneven  appearance  ;  to  prevent  this, 
the  wood  is  sometimes  sized,  or  a  filler,  composed  of  starch 
or  whiting,  or  some  absorbent  material,  may  be  used.  As 
an  example,  a  good  oak-coloured  filler  may  be  made  of 
finely  crushed  whiting  levigated  and  dried  and  coloured 
with  yellow  ochre  and  sienna,  mixed  to  a  paste  with 
japanners’  gold-size  and  a  little  turps,  and  rubbed  into 
the  grain  with  a  rag.  When  filling  is  not  used,  the  knots 
may  be  treated  with  size  and  whiting  if  for  water  staining ; 
ordinary  putty  may  be  used  for  spirit  stain. 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


141 


In  all  staining,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  raise  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  Glasspaper  should  be  used  cautiously, 
and  rubbed  the  way  of  the  grain  ;  if  rubbed  across  the 
grain,  every  mark  will  show.  Nails  must  be  punched 
down,  and  the  holes  filled  with  whiting  putty  for  water 
stain,  and  with  oil  putty  for  spirit  stain.  The  stain  may 
be  applied  fully  with  brushes,  and  badgered  to  make  it 
even,  or  wiped  off  the  surface  with  rag.  Stains  are  bright 
and  effective,  but  are  liable  to  injury  ;  the  wood  contracts, 
and  in  time  white  lines  appear  round  panels,  etc.  Stained 
work  does  not  wear  so  well  as  painted  work. 

Stains  are  all  more  or  less  fugitive.  The  fashionable 
green  now  so  prevalent  is  a  copper  solution,  brown  when 
put  on,  but  afterwards  turning  green  as  it  becomes  oxi¬ 
dised.  The  colour  fades  after  being  exposed  to  the  sun  for 
six  months,  and  leaves  a  dirty  brownish  green  colour.  The 
same  stain  applied  to  furniture  seems  to  stand  better, 
owing  its  long  life  to  varnish,  polish,  etc.  The  grain  of 
the  wood  should  be  filled  as  completely  as  possible  with 
soft  filling  (sometimes  plaster  is  used  for  oak,  etc.),  and 
the  knots  are  cut  out.  If  the  cracks  are  large,  a  piece  of 
the  same  wood  should  be  inserted. 

In  proceeding  to  stain  and  varnish  the  deal  match¬ 
lining  of  a  schoolroom  (work  which  has  to  withstand  a  good 
deal  of  wear),  the  nails  should  be  punched  in  about  g  in. 
deep  and  the  holes  stopped  with  plaster-of-paris  for  water 
stain,  and  with  common  putty  if  oil  stain  is  to  be  used. 
The  putty  should  be  stained  to  match  the  woodwork.  If  a 
filler  is  used,  the  wood  should  be  rubbed  over  with  lin¬ 
seed  oil  to  bring  out  the  grain  and  help  the  filling  to  cling. 
Filling  is  generally  used  for  spirit  varnishing  ;  it  may  be 
made  of  whiting  dried  and  levigated,  to  which  a  little 
plaster-of-paris  may  be  added,  then  mixed  with  turpentine 
to  the  consistency  of  thick  paste.  It  should  be  tinted  to 
match  the  colour  of  the  wood,  and  be  rubbed  in  with  a 
piece  of  rag  or  felt.  It  should  be  bound  with  varnish. 
Several  coats  of  stain  should  be  applied  with  a  full  brush, 
or  be  wiped  on  the  surface  with  rag,  being  careful  to 
follow  the  way  of  the  grain.  Before  varnishing,  a  couple 
of  coats  of  size  should  be  applied  ;  this  will  cause  the 
varnish  to  bear  out  well.  It  is  better  to  rub  the  work 
down  with  coarse  canvas  rather  than  with  glasspaper, 


142 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


and  it  should  be  rubbed  the  way  of  the  grain,  not  across  it. 
Glasspaper,  however,  is  necessary  where  stopping  has 
been  used. 

Another  method  would  be  to  make  up  the  stain  with  oil 
to  the  tint  required,  well  rub  it  into  the  fibres  of  the  wood, 
and  wipe  dry  with  a  cloth,  allowing  the  stain  to  go  into 
the  wood  only ;  then  stop  holes  with  stained  white-lead 
putty,  and  give  the  whole  a  coat  of  japanners’  gold-size, 
then  two  coats  of  good  hard  church  oak  varnish.  This 
would  stand  more  wear  than  size  stain  with  water-size 
over  it.  Common  water-size  has  the  further  disadvantage 
of  getting  into  the  quirks  of  beads,  etc.,  and  making  the 
work  look  bad. 

A  new  pine  dado  may  be  varnished  direct  on  the  wood 
without  filling.  The  knots  may  require  special  treatment 
as  already  described.  When  the  dado  is  being  sized,  a 
little  spirit  may  be  added  with  good  effect.  Two  coats  of 
varnish  may  suffice ;  the  first  one  containing  the  stain  with 
a  little  japanners’  gold-size,  which  sets  quickly  and  pre¬ 
vents  too  great  an  absorption  of  the  varnish.  The  border 
round  the  floor,  after  being  thoroughly  washed  or  even- 
planed,  may  be  stained  with  japan  black  thinned  out  with 
turpentine  to  the  required  tone,  enough  japanners’  gold- 
size  being  added  to  bind  it — say  1  gill  of  gold-size  to  ^  pt. 
of  black  made  very  thin  with  turps.  Finally  the  floor 
should  be  varnished.  In  dealing  with  old  wooden  dado,  re- 
staining  would  not  make  a  good  job.  R.ub  down  the  bad 
places,  prime,  knot,  putty,  second-colour,  and  finish  as  a 
piece  of  painted  work. 

The  new  floors  of  a  ballroom  should  be  finished  with 
a  wax  polish.  Take  ordinary  beeswax,  finely  shred  it,  and 
put  it  in  an  oven  till  melted,  taking  care  that  it  does  not 
catch  fire.  Then  add  sufficient  turpentine.  If  the  wood 
of  the  floor  is  close-grained,  add  sufficient  turps  to  make 
the  beeswax  thin  ;  if  the  wood  is  open-grained,  use  it  in  the 
form  of  a  paste.  Then  rub  it  in  with  a  brush  or  a  rag, 
taking  care  not  to  leave  any  wax  on  the  surface.  After¬ 
wards  continue  the  rubbing,  first  with  a  coarse  material 
and  then  with  finer,  until  a  good  finish  is  obtained.  Hard 
and  prolonged  rubbing  is  necessary. 

The  hall  of  a  house  should  not  be  wax-polished,  as 
damp  affects  wax-polishing.  It  would  be  better  to  varnish 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


143 


the  floor,  applying  first  two  coats  of  size,  one  warm,  the 
other  jellied,  and  then  a  coat  of  white  hard  or  carriage 
varnish. 

A  schoolroom  floor  might  be  varnished  first  with  a  coat 
of  varnish,  to  which  a  quantity  of  japanners’  gold-size  has 
been  added  (1  gill  to  pt.) ;  the  last  coat  could  be  hard 
oak  varnish. 

The  practice  of  staining  the  margin  left  on  the  stairs 
at  the  side  of  the  carpet  and  round  the  outer  edge  of  a 
room  carpeted  with  an  art  square  has,  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view,  much  to  commend  it.  A  rich  brown  tone 
harmonises  well  with  most  carpets,  but  there  is  no  appar¬ 
ent  reason  why  other  colours,  as  mahogany  or  pine,  may 
not  be  used.  A  perfect  match  is  not  aimed  at,  as  a  good 
contrast  does  equally  well.  To  remove  any  dirt  or  grease, 
the  floor  should  be  well  cleansed  with  warm  water  in 
which  has  been  dissolved  a  little  common  washing  soda, 
not  soap  or  powder.  When  quite  dry,  the  floor  is  ready 
for  the  stain.  Permanganate  of  potash  will  yield  shades 
varying  from  light  oak  to  dark  walnut.  One  pennyworth 
dissolved  in  1  qt.  of  water  is  about  the  quantity  for  a 
living-room  or  bedroom  of  ordinary  size.  When  the  stain 
is  too  light,  apply  a  second  coat  or  add  more  potash.  A 
better  result  is  gained  by  two  applications. 

Another  simple  plan  is  to  use  an  ordinary  walnut  stain, 
say  Vandyke  brown,  mixed  in  a  rather  strong  solution  of 
common  washing-soda — 1  teacupful  to  1  gal.  of  water ; 
apply  with  a  brush  and  rub  well  in  with  a  rag,  finishing  off 
the  long  way  of  the  boards.  Brush-marks  or  a  patchy  ap¬ 
pearance  are  thus  avoided. 

If  mahogany  colour  is  desired,  mix  burnt  sienna — which 
may  be  bought  at  paint  stores  ground  in  water — in  equal 
parts  of  stale  beer  and  water.  For  pine  colour,  use  raw 
sienna ;  common  malt  vinegar  is  also  useful  to  mix  them 
with.  For  a  rosewood  colour,  take  2  oz.  extract  of  log¬ 
wood,  i  lb.  red  sanders ;  boil  in  1  gal.  of  water  for  an 
hour.  Strain  through  canvas  or  muslin,  then  add  alum 
1  oz.  ;  apply  hot.  This  imparts  a  reddish  tone.  To  im¬ 
part  a  darker  tone,  brush  over  again  with  logwood  stain 
only ;  2  oz.  extract  to  1  qt.  If  required  still  darker,  or 
with  dark  streaks,  add  2  oz.  of  blue  or  green  copperas  to 
the  logwood  solution.  Floors  thus  stained  should  be  after- 


144 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORE. 


wards  brushed  over  with  glue-size,  to  prevent  the  varnish 
sinking  in,  and  the  nail-holes  filled  up  with  putty  coloured 
to  match  ;  they  should  then  be  given  two  or  three  coats  of 
spirit  varnish  or  good-quality  oak  varnish. 

When  it  is  desired  to  stain  and  varnish  a  room  in  one 
day  a  combined  stain  and  varnish  is  used.  Dissolve  4  oz 
of  orange  shellac  in  1  pt.  of  methylated  spirits  ;  then  add 
as  much  dry  brown  umber  or  Vandyke  brown  as  will  give 
the  tone  desired  in  at  most  two  applications  ;  apply  evenly 
with  a  large  camel-hair  brush. 


145 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS’  WORK. 

The  current  prices  of  painters’  materials  having  been 
ascertained  by  consulting  the  manufacturers’  price  lists, 
the  following  data  will  assist  in  the  production  of  an 
accurate  estimate  for  plain  painting. 

The  following  are  approximately  the  quantities  that, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  a  painter  can  do  in  a  day’s 
work  of  ten  hours.  They  are  based  on  constants  of  labour, 
and  on  information  given  in  various  text-books :  Of  knot¬ 
ting  only,  60  to  63  yd.  super.  ;  of  knotting,  priming,  and 
stopping,  38  to  39  yd.  super. ;  of  plain  painting  (first  coat 
after  the  priming),  70  yd.  to  72  yd.  super.  For  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  coats  the  labour  would  be  practically  the  same  as 
for  the  second  coafti — that  is,  the  coat  following  the 
priming. 

The  labour  of  cutting  in  each  dozen  ordinary  sash 
squares  (one  side)  for  each  coat  would  be  on  the  average 
about  half  an  hour  (painter). 

The  approximate  quantity  of  material  required  for 
executing  40  sq.  yd.  on  wood  of  knotting,  priming,  and 
stopping  is  J  lb.  glue,  |  lb.  pumice  stone,  \  lb.  red-lead, 
8  sheets  glasspaper,  6  lb.  white-lead,  2^  pints  of  linseed 
oil,  \  lb.  driers,  2  lb.  putty.  The  approximate  quantity, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  to  paint  70  super,  yd.  (one 
coat),  plain  painting,  is  about  10^  lb.  white-lead,  2%  pints 
linseed  oil,  1  pint  turps,  and  J  lb.  driers.  There  would 
be  but  a  very  trifling  difference  between  the  second  coat 
(that  is,  the  coat  following  the  priming  coat)  and  any  after 
coat,  probably  on  70  yd.  only  about  1  lb.  white-lead  and 
^  pint  of  linseed  oil  less.  In  arriving  at  the  foregoing 
quantities,  several  text-books  have  been  compared,  and  as 
regards  the  quantity  of  linseed  oil  and  turps  required  to 
mix  the  white-lead,  etc.  (where  especially  difference  was 
found),  the  assumption  has  been  made  that  1  gal.  of 
liquid  will  mix  24  lb.  of  white-lead  ;  the  liquid  of  course 
J 


146 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


varying  according  to  the  consistency  of  the  paint.  Nothing 
has  been  included  for  the  powdered  or  other  colouring 
pigments  required  to  be  added  to  bring  the  white  paint  to 
any  desired  tint.  With  common  or  ordinary  coloured  paint 
this  is  very  trifling,  an  ounce  or  so  of  dry  pigment  being 
often  sufficient  for  many  pounds  of  the  mixed  colour. 
Superior  colours — that  is,  expensive  pigments — must  be 
allowed  for  according  to  the  value  of  the  colouring  mat¬ 
ter.  Such  is  the  variety  of  pigments  on  the  market, 
that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast 
rule  as  to  which  are  ordinary  plain  tints  and  which  should 
be  termed  superior,  or  art,  tints.  If,  however,  the  view  be 
taken  that  any  paint  requiring  dry  colours  costing  more 
than  sixpence  per  pound  is  a  superior  colour,  then  the 
following  are  some  principal  pigments  that  may  be  classed 
as  superior  tints :  Drop  black,  ivory  black,  chrome  yellow, 
vermilionette,  Chinese  red,  Derby  red,  Persian  red,  Tur¬ 
key  red,  royal  red,  Vandyke  brown,  York  brown,  carmine, 
and  ultramarine.  The  following  are  very  expensive  pig¬ 
ments  : — Royal  green,  vermilion,  King’s  and  Naples  yel¬ 
low,  Prussian  blue,  and  Antwerp  blue.  Many  of  the  lakes 
cost  more  than  20s.  a  pound. 

Among  the  less  expensive  pigments  are :  Blue-black  and 
lampblack  ;  all  the  usual  varieties  of  ochre  ;  Chinese  and 
imperial  yellow,  Venetian  red,  Brunswick  and  lime  blues  ; 
and  Brunswick,  Quaker,  bronze  and  emerald  greens. 

In  calculating  the  cost  of  painting,  allowance  should 
be  made  for  wear  and  tear  in  use  of  brushes,  etc.  If  the 
work  is  done  from  ladders,  the  labour  is  probably  in¬ 
creased  by  one-third  more  than  the  ordinary  work  con¬ 
templated  in  the  foregoing  memoranda.  The  slight  differ¬ 
ence  in  cost  of  paint  mixed  with  boiled  oil  for  outside 
work,  instead  of  raw  oil  for  inside  work,  and  the  cost  oi 
mixing  with  turps  instead  of  oil  where  flatting  is  needed, 
is  very  small,  and  can  generally  be  ignored  in  estimating. 

The  exact  quantity  of  paint  required  for  a  given  sur¬ 
face  is  not  easily  estimated,  much  depending  on  the  volume 
of  the  paint,  its  quality,  and  its  staining  properties,  and 
also  the  manner  in  which  the  unpainted  surface  was  pre¬ 
pared  before  the  paint  was  applied.  Plaster  and  wood, 
owing  to  their  absorbent  nature,  require  considerably  more 
paint  than  ironwork  ;  woods  with  fine  or  close  grain,  like 


ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS’  WORK.  147 


oak,  are  less  absorbent  than  deal  or  white  wood.  The 
table  given  below  shows  the  covering  properties  of  various 
pigments  in  average  circumstances 

Metalwork. 


First  Coat. 

Second  Coat 

sq.  yd. 

sq.  yd. 

lb.  white  paint  will  cover 

7l 

1 4 

9 

lb.  red  oxide  will  cover . 

9} 

12 

lb.  zinc  white  will  cover . 

12 

14 

Woodwork. 

First  Coat. 

Second  Coat. 

sq.  yd. 

sq.  yd. 

lb.  red  oxide  will  cover . 

5 

6 

lb.  zinc  white  will  cover . 

4 

5 

lb.  green  paint  will  cover 

3i 

44 

lb.  boiled  oil  will  cover . 

44 

6 

On  plaster  1  lb.  of  raw  oil  will  cover  5  sq.  ft.  for  first 
coat  and  9  sq.  ft.  for  second  coat ;  1  lb.  of  white-lead 
paint  will  cover  9  sq.  ft.  for  the  first  coat.  These  figures 
are  based  on  paints  mixed  to  working  consistency  with 
raw  and  boiled  oils  and  from  good  quality  paints. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  work,  factors  to  be  included 
in  the  calculation  are  the  time  the  work  is  likely  to  take, 
the  amount  of  material  required,  the  state  in  which  the 
job  is  found,  the  number  of  coats  of  colour. 

The  four  various  ways  of  charging  up  a  job  are:  (1) 
By  contract  (2)  for  time  and  material ;  (3)  by  measure  and 
valuation ;  (4)  by  setting  a  fair  price — that  is,  a  price 
allowing  a  reasonable  margin  for  profit  after  the  job  is 
done  and  all  costs  have  been  ascertained. 

In  writing  a  specification,  or  in  preparing  an  estimate 
for  painting  a  new  work,  when  stating  the  number  of  coats 
it  is  advisable  to  express  clearly  whether  or  not  the  prim¬ 
ing  is  intended  to  be  counted  as  a  coat.  It  is  usually, 
but,  as  far  as  the  writer’s  experience  goes,  not  univers¬ 
ally  so  understood.  “  Five  oils  on  woodwork  ”  is  more 
open  to  mistake  than  the  full  description  of  “  Knot,  prime, 
stop,  and  four  oils.” 

The  correct  method  of  measuring  painters’  work,  such 
as  doors,  window  frames,  etc.,  is  to  measure  whatever  is 


148 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


painted,  allowing  all  returns,  panels,  etc.,  stating  the 
number  of  coats  of  paint,  the  finished  tint,  and  if  flatted  ; 
also  if  in  two  tints.  Should  the  mouldings  be  cut  in,  col¬ 
lect  them  by  the  foot  run  ;  if  clearcoled,  specify  the  same ; 
if  on  new  plastered  walls,  describe  the  same.  All  painting 
should  mean  and  include  knotting,  stopping,  preparing, 
etc.  Narrow  widths  under  14  in.,  and  having  two  edges, 
are  cut  in  and  taken  by  the  foot  run. 

Door  Faces  (per  yard  super.). — Take  the  width  of  the 
door,  including  the  architraves  and  returns,  adding  L.)  in. 
for  every  panel  by  the  height  from  the  floor  to  the  top, 
inclusive  of  architrave  and  any  grounds.  Collect  the 
length  of  the  jamb  linings  by  the  widths,  adding  rebates 
and  thickness  of  the  door ;  if  both  sides  of  the  door  are 
painted  alike,  double  the  dimension. 

W  ain  seating  s  or.  Panelled  Dados  (per  yard  super.). — 
Multiply  the  length  by  the  height,  and  add  1  in.  for  all 
panels,  etc.,  in  height  only. 

Window  Fronts,  Boxing  Shutters,  etc.  (per  foot  super.). 
— Take  the  width,  including  the  returns,  dead  to  the  walls 
by  the  height  from  the  floor  to  the  top,  adding  any  pro¬ 
jection  that  may  occur ;  take  the  height  of  the  shutters  by 
the  width,  adding  2  ft.  6  in.  for  the  edgings  inside  of  the 
boxings,  etc.  Collect  the  whole  dimensions  of  round  of 
elbow  caps  by  10  in.  in  width.  Calculate  the  sash  squares 
by  the  dozen,  specifying  coats ;  sashes  and  frames  are 
numbered,  stating  how  many  coats. 

Reveals. — Take  the  heights  and  soffits  by  the  foot  run. 

Cornices  (per  foot  run). — Collect  the  round;  if  above 
14  in.  in  girth,  take  them  by  the  foot  super.  ;  if  under,  by 
the  foot  run.  Particularise  if  carved  or  enriched ;  add  one 
third. 

Shirtings  (per  foot  run). — Take  the  dimensions  of  the 
rooms,  describing  whether  square  or  moulded.  Strings  of 
stairs,  handrails,  newels,  balusters,  apron  linings,  and  base 
mouldings  are  all  measured  in  a  similar  way. 

Rainwater  Pipes,  etc.  (per  foot  run). — Add  up  the 
lengths  of  rainwater  pipes,  eaves,  and  gutters,  and  add 
2  ft.  6  in.  for  cistern  heads,  and  1  ft.  6  in.  for  shoes.  Say 
how  many  brackets. 

Ironworh. — Iron,  or  any  other  description  of  railing,  is 
measured  as  square  work.  Collect  the  lengths  by  the 


ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS’  WORK.  149 

heights ;  if  painted  all  round,  double  the  dimension.  All 
bars,  brackets,  etc.,  are  numbered. 

Briefly,  it  may  be  said  that  painting  may  be  measured 
by  taking  the  quantity  from  the  bills  and  making  an 
allowance  for  the  edges,  or  by  taking  the  quantity  from 
the  dimensions  and  allowing  for  the  edges;  both  ways  give 
the  same  results.  Either  method  is  employed  as  found 
convenient.  In  taking  the  dimensions  of  painters’  work 
the  line  is  applied  to  every  part  upon  which  the  colour  has 
been  laid,  and  the  work  is  estimated  by  the  square  yard  ; 
but  cornices,  skirting,  handrails,  fascia  boards,  gutters, 
rainwater  pipes,  etc.,  etc.,  are  taken  by  the  lineal  foot. 

A  paragraph  may  be  devoted  to  the  method  of  measur¬ 
ing  painters’  work  in  the  Scottish  system.  Size  tinting, 
graining  and  marbling,  bronzing,  varnishing,  and  oil  paint¬ 
ing  are  taken  per  square  yard,  and  separated  for  number  of 
coats,  and  according  as  to  whether  on  plaster,  wood,  or 
iron,  and  classified  according  to  style  and  quality.  Bail¬ 
ings  and  gates  are  taken  as  flat  work  twice.  The  following 
are  all  taken  per  lineal  yard :  skirtings,  belts,  mouldings, 
cornices,  pipes,  gutters,  conductors,  and  ends  of  steps,  the 
girths  being  stated  ;  drawing  lines,  the  widths  being  stated. 
The  following  are  numbered :  pendants,  brackets,  pillars, 
standards  (the  average  lengths  being  stated),  chimney  lad¬ 
ders,  cistern  heads,  ears  of  conductors,  outsides  of  windows 
and  skylights  ;  extra  large  sizes  of  the  latter  are  taken  per 
square  yard,  according  to  nature  and  position.  Begarding 
paperhangers’  work,  in  the  Scottish  system  furnishingpaper 
is  taken  per  piece,  stating  the  price,  and  hanging  includes 
previous  sizing.  Prices  are  to  include  all  requisite  scaf¬ 
folding,  and  washing  out  floors  after  the  job  is  finished. 

As  regards  the  quantity  of  paint  required  to  cover  a 
given  surface,  it  may  be  accepted  that  1  lb.  of  white-lead, 
properly  mixed  with  oil,  will  cover  about  5  sq.  yd.  of 
boards  for  a  first  coat,  and  for  a  second  and  third  coat  the 
same  quantity  of  paint  will  cover  3  yd.  more. 

Suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  cost  of  painting  a 
door  7  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft.  9  in.,  on  both  sides,  with  three 
coats,  at  Is.  per  yard  superficial : 

r  6"  x  3'  9"  =  28'  1"  6"'  X  2  =  56'  3"  -f  9  =  fi  yd.  2  ft.  3  in. 

6J  sq.  yd.  at  Is.  per  yard  =  6s.  3d. 

A  room  24  ft.  9  in.  long,  17  ft.  3  in.  wide,  and  11  ft. 


150 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


6  in.  high.  What  would  the  painting  of  the  walls  cost  at 
8s.  9d.  per  square  yard  ? 


24'  9"  +  17'  3"  x  2  x  11'  6'' 
9 


=  107|  sq.  yd. 


107^  at  £1  per  square  yard  =  £107  6s.  8d. 

o  c.  i  i  r  r*i  W7  6  8 

2s.  6d.  =  i  ot  £l  = 

13  8  4 

Is.  3d.  =  b  of  2s.  6d.  =  6  14  2 

£20  2  6  Cost  of  painting  the  room. 


Dimensions  for  Obtaining  Quantities  for  Small  Job. 
ft.  in. 


4)6  0 

4  0 

96 

Knot,  prime,  and  3  oils. 

2)6  0 

3  6 

42 

Grain  and  two  coats  varnish. 

20  0 

8  0 

160 

4  oils  and  flat  to  plaster  terra-cotta. 

2)10  0 

2  6 

50 

2  oils  to  balusters. 

8  0 

3  0 

24 

Rub  and  pumice  previous  to  painting. 

10  0 

10 

2  oils  cutting  for  stair  carpet. 

No.  2  Sash  frames  4  oils  6/-  x  3/-. 
4  Dozen  small  squares  2  oils. 

2  Wood  chimney-pieces  4  oils. 


ft.  in. 

20  0 
15  0 

-  ;  300  i  Distemper  two  tints. 

In  taking  out  quantities  for  painters’  work  a  dimension 


ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS'  WORK.  151 


book  is.  employed,  ruled  with  vertical  lines,  the  dimensions 
being  entered  on  the  left-hand  column,  and  the  descrip¬ 
tion  of  work  on  the  right,  leaving  the  middle  column  for 
the  squaring  figures.  On  p.  150  the  figures  to  the  left  of 
the  dimensions  and  separated  therefrom  by  brackets  mean 
there  is  that  number  of  similar  surfaces ;  therefore  the 
squaring  has  to  be  multiplied  by  that  number. 

By  way  of  illustration  the  quantities  for  a  small  job 
may  be  taken  out.  The  dimensions  are  prepared  as  on 
p.  150. 

An  abstract  of  all  the  dimensions  is  now  made  to  pre¬ 
pare  for  bringing  into  bill. 


Abstract  of  Dimensions. 


2  Oils. 
Super,  to 
baluster. 

3  Oils. 

Super,  knotting 
and  priming. 

4  Oils. 

Super,  flatting 
to  plaster  in 
terra-cotta. 

Super,  rubbing 
and  pumiced 
previous  to 
painting. 

9)50 

5f  yd. 

9)96 
iof  yd. 

9)160 

17*  yd- 

9)24 

2|  yd. 

4  doz. 
small  sqs. 

Super,  graining 
and  varnishing. 

2  chimney- 
pieces.  . 

Super,  distem¬ 
per  two  tints. 

Cutting  for 
stair  carpet, 

10  ft.  run. 

9)42 

4f  yd. 

2  sash  frames 
6/-  x  3/-. 

9)300 

33#  yd 

The  abstract  may  now  be  brought  into  bill,  the  pricing 
of  which  will  enable  the  amount  of  the  estimate  to  be 
arrived  at  (see  next  page). 

In  taking  off  quantifies  for  varnishing,  the  work  is 
measured  in  the  same  way  as  for  painting.  Thus  wood¬ 
work  generally  is  measured  per  yd.  super,  for  all  work  over 
12  in.  wide.  To  save  time  and  trouble  of  measuring  the 
edges,  some  quantity  surveyors  usually  add  one-eighth  to 
the  quantity,  to  allow  for  the  edges  and  also  for  panelling. 
In  most  cases  this  will  be  sufficiently  approximate,  but 
small  or  elaborately  moulded  panels  must  be  allowed  for 
according  to  judgment.  A  description  of  the  varnish 
should  be  given,  and  also  the  number  of  coats  and  finish 
desired.  Staining  and  varnishing  is  measured  as  before 
described,  the  number  of  coats  of  size,  stain,  and  varnish 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


152 


Bill  of  Quantities. 


yd- 

5 

ft. 

5 

Sup. 

2  oils  to  balusters  . 

Bate  |j  £ 

1  s. 

d. 

10 

6 

n 

Knotting,  priming,  and  3  oils  on 
deal . 

17 

7 

)> 

4  oils  and  fiat  to  plaster  finished 
terra-cotta  . 

2 

6 

Bubbing  down  and  pumicing  ... 

4 

6 

Graining  and  2. coats  varnish  ... 

10 

run 

Cutting  for  stair  carpet  and  2  oils 

No. 

2  Wood  chimney-pieces,  4  oils 

5) 

2  sash  frames  6/-  x  3/-,  4  oils  ... 

J) 

4  dozen  small  squares,  4  oils  ... 

33 

3 

Sup. 

Distemper  2  tints 

— 

being  stated,  and  a  description  given  of  the  colour  of  the 
stain  and  varnish,  and  it  must  be  stated  whether  the  work 
is  to  be  finished  in  more  than  one  tint. 

Graining  and  varnishing  is  measured  by  the  yd.  super., 
except  for  handrails,  which  are  taken  by  the  ft.  run.  The 
kind  of  imitation  is  described,  and  also  the  number  of  coats 
of  varnish. 

The  price  of  varnish  ranges  from  5s.  to  30s.  per  gal.  ; 
but,  as  before  stated,  the  cheaper  article  is  not  to  be  relied 
upon.  Best  hard  oak  varnish  for  inside  work,  extra  hard 
church  oak  varnish,  fine  hard  copal  varnish,  best  hard 
copal  varnish,  and  best  hard  carnage  varnish,  all  for  in¬ 
side  work,  range  in  price  from  10s.  6d.  to  20s.  per  gal.  ; 
japan  gold-size,  10s.  per  gal.  ;  extra  pale  paper  varnish, 
12s.  per  gal. 

Each  coat  of  spirit  varnishing,  including  sizing  (if 
necessary),  is  worth  from  5d.  to  8d.  per  yd.  super.  One 
Coat  of  copal  varnish,  including  sizing  (if  necessary),  is 


ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS’  WORK,  153 


worth  from  6d.  to  9d.  per  yd.  super.,  two  coats  of  copal 
varnish,  lOd.  to  Is.  Three  coats  of  copal  varnish,  Is.  2d.  to 
Is.  4d.,  while  for  each  extra  coat  3d.  per  yd.  super,  may 
be  added.  Hand  polishing  on  plain  work  is  worth  about 
5d.  per  ft.  super.  On  mouldings  or  plain  columns  the  cost 
may  be  taken  from  Is.  2d.  to  Is.  3d.  per  ft.  super. 

The  chief  matters  to  be  considered  in  estimating  for 
and  undertaking  two  typical  jobs  will  now  be  briefly  dis¬ 
cussed — the  painting,  papering,  and  decorating  of  a  ten- 
roomed  house  and  a  small  hotel. 

Assuming  that  the  reader  is  put  in  charge  of  the  paint¬ 
ing,  papering,  and  decorating  of  a  ten-roomed  villa  of 
ordinary  size,  first  of  all  the  house  should  be  thoroughly 
inspected,  surfaces  measured,  and  an  estimate  formed  of 
the  labour  and  material  required,  as  follows : — The  surface 
to  be  covered  should  be  reduced  to  square  yards,  chimney 
openings  being  included.  Window  sashes  should  be 
measured  up  as  if  plain  surfaces,  and  skirtings  under 
1  ft.  in  height  as  per  yd.  run.  Allow  for  every  45  yd.  of 
woodwork,  5  lb.  of  white-lead  and  1  qt.  of  thinnings  ;  for 
every  12  yd.  of  ceiling,  3  lb.  of  size  and  10  lb.  of  whiting ; 
for  every  5-|  yd.  of  wall  surface,  one  piece  of  paper  (Eng¬ 
lish),  adding  one  piece  to  every  seven  for  waste  in  cutting. 
Allow  six  painters  and  one  paperhanger,  and  one  labourer 
to  six  men.  Place  two  men  in  each  room.  Two  step  lad¬ 
ders  and  planks  should  be  provided  for  each  pair  of  men. 
As  a  rough  guide,  1  gal.  of  paint  should  cover  from  450 
to  650  super,  ft.  of  wood,  or  720  ft.  of  iron  ;  for  stucco  more 
paint  and  thinnings  would  be  required,  according  to  the 
amount  of  suction  in  the  plaster.  Before  beginning  work, 
everything  liable  to  be  damaged  should  be  protected.  It  is  ad¬ 
visable  to  paste  brown  paper  over  the  floors,  and  drop-cloths 
and  thin  boards  should  be  laid  where  there  is  much  wear  ; 
thin  boards  should  also  be  nailed  on  the  treads  of  the  stairs. 
Fittings  should  be  taken  off,  tallied,  and  locked  up,  and 
blinds,  etc.,  that  would  be  in  the  way  should  be  taken 
down  and  cleaned.  The  next  step  is  to  clean  down  and 
repair.  Ceilings  should  be  washed  off,  paper  removed 
from  the  walls,  paint  washed  and  pumiced  down,  ceilings 
clearcoled,  bad  places  mended,  chimneys  cleaned,  and  all 
dirt  and  refuse  swept  into  the  middle  of  the  room  and 
immediately  carried  out  of  doors.  All  the  distempering. 


154 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


washing  down,  and  preparatory  coats  should  be  done  to¬ 
gether  in  order  to  avoid  a  number  of  mixings.  The  paint 
left  from  one  job  should,  when  practicable,  be  worked  up 
for  another,  so  as  to  send  to  the  shop  as  little  smudge  as 
possible.  Varnishing  and  paperhanging  are  the  last  opera¬ 
tions.  It  is  highly  important  that  forethought  should  be 
exercised  to  get  all  surfaces  and  all  materials  ready  in  ad¬ 
vance  of  the  workmen,  so  that  the  different  stages  of  the 
work  may  follow  each  other  smoothly  and  without  delay. 
Begin  work  at  the  top  lefhhand  room,  and  work  to  the 
right,  leaving  the  wet  work  on  the  left  hand.  In  painting 
the  outside  of  the  house,  begin  at  the  top  left-hand  corner 
and  work  downwards,  taking  windows  and  doors  with  the 
rest  of  the  work.  Plenty  of  scaffolding  should  be  pro¬ 
vided,  the  pots  kept  clean,  cleanliness  observed  in  wiping 
down,  care  exercised  in  keeping  the  brushes  and  in  the 
use  of  materials,  and  economy  studied  by  using  up  colour, 
saving  only  enough  for  finally  touching  up. 

Placed  in  charge  of  a  ten-roomed  villa  to  paint,  paper, 
and  decorate,  an  old  hand  would  estimate  by  experience 
rather  than  by  rule.  If  the  wall  is  damp  or  damaged, 
mere  measurement  is  an  insufficient  basis  for  an  estimate. 
It  is  not  so  much  the  size  of  the  wall  or  ceiling  as  the  con¬ 
dition  they  are  in  that  affects  the  price. 

Say  that  a  small  hotel,  consisting  of  about  thirty 
rooms,  is  to  be  thoroughly  redecorated  and  painted  inside 
and  out.  The  hotel  is  to  be  occupied  during  the  progress 
of  the  work,  the  rooms  being  given  over  to  the  painters 
a  few  at  a  time.  Naturally,  the  work  must  be  finished 
expeditiously.  Measure  the  work  and  estimate  the  quan¬ 
tities  of  materials  required  as  before. 

Two  men  might  be  put  in  the  small  rooms,  and  three  in 
the  larger,  with  a  labourer  (to  fetch  water,  etc.),  and  a 
boy  at  the  paint  bench.  Bemove  all  the  fittings  and  re¬ 
movable  fixtures,  take  down  the  blinds,  affix  a  descriptive 
tally  to  each,  and  lock  all  in  a  cupboard.  The  floors  should 
have  brown  paper  pasted  over  them  on  which  to  lay  drop 
cloths.  Thin  boards  or  strips  of  linoleum  should  be  laid 
on  the  stairs.  Two  step  ladders,  a  plank,  and  a  kit  of 
brushes  should  be  supplied  to  each  pair  of  men.  Othej 
requirements  for  the  job  are: — A  wide  paint  bench  on 
trestles ;  half  a  dozen  distemper  brushes ;  three  leathers ; 


ESTIMATING  AND  MEASURING  PAINTERS'  WORK.  155 


half  a  dozen  sponges ;  two  dozen  galvanised  iron  kettles ; 
one  dozen  earthenware  pots ;  canvas ;  fine  and  coarse 
strainers ;  pasteboard  and  trestles ;  half  a  dozen  dust 
sheets ;  one  dozen  fitches  ;  and  one  pair  of  large  stipplers  ; 
adding  to  the  plant  as  occasion  requires.  Wash  the  ceil¬ 
ing,  burn  off  the  paint,  and  strip  the  walls.  Begin  working 
at  the  top  rooms  at  the  right-hand  corner,  the  doors  and 
windows  to  follow  the  left  hand.  The  staircase  is  done 
last.  If  the  mantels  are  to  be  painted,  give  them,  after 
washing,  a  coat  of  paste  driers  thinned  with  turps.  Finish 
all  the  ceilings  first,  and  clear  away  all  the  rubbish.  In¬ 
sist  that  every  workman  wears  slippers,  so  as  not  to  carry 
dirt  in  from  the  street.  Arrange  that  the  coats  of  colour 
shall  follow  each  other  in  such  order  that  the  paint  in  one 
room  may  be  getting  hard  whilst  the  work  in  another  room 
is  in  progress.  The  planks  and  ladders  should  be  well 
washed  before  being  brought  on  the  job. 


INDEX 


Aerograph  Spray  Painter,  36-38 
American  Turpentine,  47 
Asphaltum  tor  Painting  Outdoor 
Work,  90 

Aspinall’s  Enamel,  54 
Badger-hair  Softener,  83 
Balconies,  Portable,  18 
Baltic  Oil,  46 
Bark,  Oak,  16 

Basement  Walls,  Distemper  for,  100 
Bastard  Flat  Finish,  14 
Benzoline  as  Turpentine  Substi¬ 
tute,  47 

Black  Paints,  Mixing,  69 
-  Pigments,  52 

-  Surface  to  be  made  Lighter, 

14,  15 

Blisters  on  Painted  Woodwork,  85 

- ,  Stopping  for,  78 

- on  Stucco,  85 

- -  Varnish,  137 

Blooming  of  Varnish,  136 
Blue  Paints,  Mixing,  67,  68 

-  Pigments,  50 

■ -  Stain,  143 

Board,  Palette,  35 
Boat,  Painters’,  19,  20 
Brazing  Lamps  for  Removing  Old 
Paint,  22 

Brickwork,  Paint  for,  126 

- ,  Painting,  128 

Bridgepaint,  55 
Bristles,  Brush,  22 

-  Falling  from  Brushes,  24 

Bronze  Pigments,  52 
Brown  Paints,  Mixing,  68 

-  Pigments,  51,  52 

-  Stain,  143 

Brushes,  22 

- ,  Bristles  for,  22 

- ,  -  Falling  from,  24 

- ,  Camel-hair,  28 

- ,  Care  of,  23 

- ,  Choosing,  22,  23 

- ,  Cleaning,  27,  28 

- ,  Detecting  Fibre  in,  23 

- ,  Distemper,  32,  97 

- ,  Dusting,  30 

- ,  Fibre.  28,  29 

-  for  Flattening,  14 

- ,  Ground,  31 

- ,  Hog-hair,  23 

-  for  Limewhiting,  28,  29 

- ,  Preserving,  23,  24 

- ,  Sable,  28 

- :  Sash  Tool,  33 

- ,  Softening  Hairs  of,  27 

-  for  Stencilling,  33 

- ,  Stippling,  30 

- ,  Storing,  28 

- ,  String-bound,  27 


Brushes,  Tying,  24,  25 

- ,  Varnish,  26,  31,  138 

Calcarium,  Morse’s,  58 
Camel-hair  Brushes,  28 
Cannon’s  Concentrated  Glue  Size, 
96 

Cans,  Cleaning,  21 
Canvas  Strainers,  22 
Caustic  Soda  for  Cleaning  Cans,  21 
Ceiling,  Clearcoling,  122 

- ,  Cracked,  Lining,  94 

- ,  Mending,  93 

- ,  Stains  in,  94,  96 

- ,  Stopping,  93,  94 

- ,  Whitewash  for,  98 

Cement,  Distempering,  104 

- ,  Keene’s,  92 

- ,  Roman,  92 

Charging  up  a  Job,  147 
Chemical  Action  of  Pigments,  60 
Chisel  Knife,  35 
Chromatic  Circle,  107 
Chrome  Pigments,  51 
Cleaning  Brushes,  27,  28 

- Paint  and  Varnish  Cans,  21 

-  Painted  Surfaces,  122 

Clearcole  Priming,  77 
Clearcoling  Ceiling,  122 
Cloths,  Dust,  21 
Clouding  of  Varnish,  136 
Coachmakers’  Filling,  76 
Cold-water  Paint,  Magnite,  57 
Colour  ( see  also  Paint) 

-  Combination,  106-116 

- ,  Complementary  of  a,  108 

- ,  Luminous,  112 

-  Scheme  for  Building,  111 

Constants  of  Labour,  145 
Cornices,  Measuring,  148 
Covering  Power  of  Paints,  147,  149 
-  of  White  Lead.  Testing 
for,  42 

Cracked  Ceiling,  Lining.  94 
Cracking  of  Varnish,  136 
Cracks  in  Window  Frames,  Stop¬ 
ping,  120,  121 

Cradle,  Palmer’s  Travelling,  19 
Creeping  of  Varnish,  137,  138 
Crosbie’s  Wolverhampton  Oxide 
Paint,  57 

Damp,  Remedy  for,  129 
Davis’  Strainers,  22 
Day’s  Ordinary  Work  for  Painter, 
145 

Distemper,  16 

- ,  Addition  of  Alum  to,  96 

-  for  Basement  Walls,  100 

-  Brushes,  32,  97 

— ,  Colouring  Wall  with,  99,  100 

- ,  Colours  in,  95 

- ,  “  Gathering  ”  of,  97 


INDEX. 


157 


Distemper,  Hall’s,  56,  57 

- - ,  Mixing,  95 

-  Paint-pots,  95 

- ,  Recipe  for,  104,  105 

- ,  Safe  Colours  for,  101 

- ,  Size  for,  96 

- ,  Washable,  101-105 

Distempering,  95-97 

- ,  Cost  of,  104 

— -  Cement,  104 

-  with  Duresco,  101 

- ,  Mending  Surfaces  before,  93 

-  on  Wall-paper,  99 

Door,  Estimating  for,  149 

- ,  Measuring,  147,  148 

- ,  Painting,  82,  83 

- ,  Repainting  Front,  124,  125 

Draw  Putty  for  Filling,  74 
Driers,  12,  48,  49 

- ,  Liquid,  49 

- ,  Patent,  49 

- ,  Terebene,  48-50 

- ,  Testing,  49 

-  for  White-lead,  48,  49 

Drop  Sheets,  21 
Drying  Oils,  49 

- Power  of  Linseed  Oil,  44,  45 

Duresco,  55 

- ,  Distempering  with,  101 

Dust  Cloths,  21 

Dusters  or  Dusting  Brushes,  30 
Eggshell  Gloss  Finish,  14,  15 
Elasticity  of  Varnish,  Testing,  131 
Enamel,  Aspinall’s,  54 
Estimate,  Preparing,  147 
Estimating  Painters’  Work,  145-155 
External  Painting,  123 
Fibre,  Detecting,  in  Brushes,  22,  23 

-  Brushes  for  Limewhiting,  28, 

29 

Fillings,  Coachmakers’,  76 

-  for  Cracked  Surface,  77,  78 

- ,  Draw  Putty  for,  74 

-  Hole  on  Painted  Surface,  74 

-  before  Painting,  75 

- ,  Quick,  76 

-  for  Woodwork,  75 

Finger-marks  on  Varnish,  Remov 
ing,  138 

Finish,  Bastard  Flat,  14 

- ,  Eggshell  Gloss,  14,  15 

-  of  Oil  Colour  with  Gloss,  16 

-  on  Paint,  Obtaining  Good,  14 

Fireproof  Paints,  59 
Flaking  of  Varnish,  138 
Flatting,  14,  83,  84 

- ,  Brush  for,  14 

- ,  Ground  for,  16,  85 

- -,  Mixing,  15,  16 

-  for  Painting  out  Stains  in 

Ceilings,  96 

- ,  Varnish,  137 

Floor,  Ballroom,  Varnishing,  142 
Fre’eman’s  White,  41 
Front  Door,  Repainting,  124,  125 
Galvanised  Iron,  Priming,  71 
Gases,  Action  of,  on  Pigments,  9 


Gathering,  Cause  of,  94 

-  of  Distemper,  97 

Glasspapering,  Object  of,  13 
Glazier’s  Putty,  74 
Gloss  Ripolin,  54,  55 
Glue  Size,  Cannon’s  Concentrated, 
96 

Gold-size,  46 

- ,  JapannersS  46 

Graining,  Measuring  up,  152 
Grease,  Removing,  from  Wood¬ 
work,  81 

Green  Paints,  Mixing,  68 

-  Pigments,  51 

-  Stain,  141 

Grey  Paints,  Mixing,  69 
Ground  Brushes,  31 

- ,  Flatting,  85 

Groundwork,  Faulty,  10 
Hacking  Knife,  36 
Hall,  Varnishing,  143 
Hall’s  Sanitary  Washable  Distem¬ 
per,  56,  57 
Hand-polishing,  132 
Hemp-seed  Oil,  46 
Hog-hair  Brushes,  23 
Hotel,  Typical  Job  in.,  154,  155 
House  Painting,  117-129 

-  - ,  Materials  for,  117 

-  - ,  Method  in,  120 

-  - - ,  Quantities  for,  117 

- - ,  Ropes  used  in,  119 

-  - ,  Scaffolding  for,  118 

-  - ,  Trestles  for,  118 

House,  Typical  Job  in.  153,  154 
Ironwork,  Cleansing,  before  Paint¬ 
ing,  90 

- ,  Measuring,  148 

- ,  Painting,  87-91 

- ,  -  Rusted,  90 

Japan,  Randall’s  Paris  White,  58 
Japanners’  Gold-size,  46 
Jay’s  Metallic  Paint,  91 
Keene’s  Cement,  92 

-  -  for  Mending  Plaster,  93 

Knives,  34-36 

- ,  Chisel,  35 

- Hacking,  36 

- ,  Palette,  34 

- ,  Stopping,  35 

Knots,  Treating,  70 
Knotting  40  sq.  yd.,  Material  for, 
145 

- ,  Patent,  52 

- ,  Shellac  for,  52 

Labour,  Estimating  Cost  of,  145,  146 

Ladders,  18 

Lake  Pigments,  51 

Lampblack,  125 

Lead,  Monoxide  of,  41 

- ,  Sugar  of,  12 

Lead  -  poisoning,  Precautions 
against,  16 
Lime  Stucco,  92 

Limewhiting,  Fibre  Brushes  for, 
28,  29 

Linache’s  Test  for  Linseed  Oil,  45 


158 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS’  WORK. 


Lining  Ceiling  with  Cartridge 
Paper,  94 

Linseed  Oil,  40,  43-46 

-  - ,  Boiled,  44 

- - ,  Drying  Power  of,  44,  45 

- - ,  Extracting,  43 

- - ,  Linache’s  Test  for,  45 

- —  - ,  Maumene’s  Test  for,  45,  46 

-  - ,  Raw,  44 

-  - ,  Refining,  43 

-  - ,  Specific  Gravity  of,  45 

-  - ,  Weight  of,  45 

Liquid  Driers,  49 
Litharge  or  Massicot,  12,  41 
“Little  Giant’’  Paint  Mixer,  63 
Luminosity,  108 
Luminous  Colours,  112 
Magnite  Cold-water  Paints,  57 
Mahogany  Colour  Stain,  143 
Massicot  or  Litharge,  41 
Matchlining  of  Schoolroom,  Stain¬ 
ing,  141 

Materials,  39-59 

- ,  Estimating  Amount  of,  145-147 

Maumene’s  Test  for  Linseed  Oil, 
45,  46 

Measuring  Painters’  Work,  147-149 
Mending  Plaster,  Keene’s  Cement 
for,  93 

-  Surfaces  before  Distempering, 

93 

Metal,  Absorptive  Power  of,  147 
Metallic  Paint,  Jay’s,  91 
Metalwork,  Red-lead  Failing  on,  71 
Mill,  Cone,  62 

— ,  Wright  Clark  and  Wallis’ 
Paint,  63 

— — ,  Young  and  Marten’s  Paint,  62 
Mills,  17 

Mixers,  Paint,  62,  63 
Monoxide  of  Lead,  41 
Morse's  Calcarium,  58 
Neutralisation,  108 

- ,  Theory  of,  110 

New  Work,  Painting,  15 
Oak  Bark,  16 

- ,  Varnishing,  133 

Oil,  Baltic,  46 

- ,  Drying,  49 

- ,  Hemp-seed,  46 

- ,  Linseed,  40,  43-46 

- ,  Poppy-seed,  46,  47 

-  Staining,  140 

- of  Turpentine  ( see  Turpentine) 

-  Varnish,  130 

- ,  Walnut,  46 

Orange  Pigments,  52 
Outdoor  Work,  Asphaltum  for 
Painting,  90 

- - ,  Colours  for,  125 

-  - ,  Paint  for,  88 

Oxide  Paint,  Crosbie’s  Wolver¬ 
hampton,  57 

-  -  Torbay,  57 

Paint,  Atmospheric  Effects  on,  9, 
88 

- ,  Bearing  out  Power  of,  10 


Paint  for  Brickwork,  126 

- ,  Cleaning,  122 

- ,  Covering  Power  of,  147,  149 

- ,  Discoloration  of,  11 

- ,  Drying  of,  11 

- ,  Durability  of,  14 

- :  Estimating  Quantity  Re¬ 
quired,  146 
— ,  Finish  on,  14 

— ,  Flatness  and  Deadness  in,  10 
— ,  Hardening  Surface  of,  16 
- — ,  Laying  Coats  of,  14 

—  Mills,  17,  62,  63 

-  Mixers,  62,  63 

-  Mixing,  60-69 

- - ,  Chemical  Action  in,  60 

—  - ,  Method  of,  61 

— ,  Obtaining  Good  Finish  on,  14 
— ,  Old,  Lamps  for  Removing,  22 

-  for  Outside  Work,  88,  125 

- ,  Pittman,  58 

- ,  Preparing,  13 

- ,  Removing,  10 

- ,  -  Smell  of,  125 

- ,  Silicate,  55 

-  Surface,  Hardening,  16 

Painted  Woodwork,  Varnishing, 
134 

Painters’  Lead,  12 
Painting  Brickwork,  128 

-  Door,  82,  83 

— ,  External,  123 

-  Houses,  117-129  (see  House 

Painting) 

-  Ironwork,  87-91 

-  New  Woodwork,  11,  84 

- ,  Object  of,  9 

-  Plaster,  92-105 

- Room,  121 

-  Sashes,  125 

- Stucco,  92-105 

- ,  Time  of  Year  for,  125 

-  Window,  125 

-  Woodwork,  80-86 

Paint-pots,  etc.,  21,  95 

- - ,  Cleaning,  21 

Palette  Board,  35 

Palmer’s  Travelling  Cradle,  19 
Paper,  Lining  Ceiling  with,  94 
Paris  White  Japan,  Randall’s,  58 
Patent  Knotting,  52 
Permanganate  of  Potash  Stain,  143 
“  Petrol,”  58 

Petroleum  Spirit  as  Turpentine 
Substitute,  47 
Pigments,  40,  50-53,  108,  109 

- ,  Black,  52 

- ,  Blue,  50 

- ,  Bronze,  52 

- ,  Brown,  51 

- ,  Chemical  Action  of,  60 

- ,  Chrome,  51 

- ,  Covering  Power  of,  147,  149 

- ,  Green,  51 

- ,  Inexpensive,  146 

- ,  Lake,  51 

— ,  Mutual  Chemical  Action  of,  60 


INDEX. 


159 


Pigments,  Orange,  52 

- ,  Red,  51 

- :  Red  Lead,  41 

- ,  “  Superior,”  146 

— — ,  White,  40,  50 

- :  White-lead,  50  ( see  also  White- 

lead) 

- ,  Yellow,  52 

Pine  Dado,  Varnishing,  142 
Pipes,  Measuring,  148 
Pitchpine,  Varnishing,  133 
Pitting  of  Varnish,  135,  136 
Pittman  Paint,  58 
Plaster,  Absorptive  Power  of,  147 

- ,  New,  Painting,  92 

- ,  Painting  in  Oil  on,  97 

- ,  Priming,  71 

- ,  Washing,  with  Dilute  Sul¬ 
phuric  Acid,  93 

Plastered  Surface,  Painting,  94 
Polishing  Varnished  Surface,  135 
Poppy-seed  Oil,  46,  47 
Portable  Balconies,  18 
Powdering,  Cause  of,  86 
Preserving  Brushes,  23,  24 
Primary  v  Defined,  106 
Priming,  J70 

- ,  Clearcole,  77 

-  Galvanised  Iron,  71 

-  Knots  in  Wood,  70 

- with  Linseed  Oil,  70 

- -  40  sq.  yd.,  Material  for,  145 

- Open-grained  Wood,  71 

-  Plaster,  71 

- ,  Red-lead,  72 

- Resinous  Woods,  70 

- ,  Sheepskin,  77 

-  Woodwork  before  Painting,  82 

Pumice-stone,  12,  13 
Putty,  53 

- ,  Draw,  for  Filling,  74 

- ,  Glazier’s,  74 

- ,  Stopping,  53,  54 

- ,  White-lead,  73 

Puttying,  72 

Quantities,  Preparing  Bill  of,  150- 
152 

Randall’s  Paris  White  Japan,  58 
Red-lead,  41 

-  Failing  on  Metalwork,  71 

- ,  Imxjurities  in,  43 

- ,  Priming,  72 

- — ,  Reason  for  using,  88 
Red  Paints,  Mixing,  67 

-  Pigments,  51 

Resinous  Woods,  Priming,  70 
Reveals,  Measuring,  148 
Ripolin,  54,  55 
Roman  Cement,  92 
Room,  Estimating  for,  150 

- ,  Painting,  121 

Ropes  used  in  House  Painting,  119 

Rosewood  Stain,  143 

Sable  Brushes,  29 

Saddening  or  Neutralisation,  108 

Sanding  Varnish,  156 

Sash  Squares,  Cutting  in,  145 


Sash  Tool,  33 
Sashes,  Painting,  125 
Scaffold,  Building,  on  Stucco  Front, 
20 

Scaffolding  used  in  House  Paint¬ 
ing,  118 

Scaling,  Causes  of,  86 
Sheepskin  Priming,  77 
Sheets,  Drop,  21 
Shellac  for  Knotting,  52 
Shop,  Painters’,  17 
Sieve,  Paint  Straining,  2 
Silex,  78 

Silicate  Paints,  55 
Size,  Cannon’s  Concentrated  Glue, 
96 

- -  for  Distemper,  96 

- ,  Young’s,  98 

Sizing,  Object  of,  77 
Skirtings,  Measuring,  148 
Smell  of  'Paint,  Removing,  125 
Smoothing  Stopping,  12 
Soda,  Caustic,  for  Cleaning  Cans, 
21 

Softening  Brushes,  27 
Solignum,  58,  59 
Specification,  Preparing,  147 
Spirit  Staining,  140 
Spots  on  Varnish,  137 
Spray  Painter,  Aerograph,  36-38 
Stain,  Blue,  143,  144 

- ,  Brown,  143 

- -  in  Ceiling,  Removing,  94 

- ,  Green,  141 

- ,  Mahogany  Colour,  143 

- ,  Permanganate  of  Potash,  143 

- ,  Rosewood,  143 

- ,  Stephens’,  140 

Staining,  140-144 

- Matchlining  of  Schoolroom, 

141 

- ,  Oil,  140 

- ,  Spirit,  140 

Stair  Margins,  Staining,  143 
Staircase  Wall,  Repainting,  123 
Star  Whitewashing  Machine,  36 
Stencilling,  Brushes  for,  33 
Stephens’  Stains,  140 
Stipplers,  29 
Stopping,  73 

-  for  Blistering,  78 

-  Knife,  35 

- Putty,  53,  54 

- ,  Smoothing,  12 

Stopping  Cracks  m  Window 
Frames,  121 
Storing  Brushes,  28 
Strainers,  21,  22 
String-bound  Brushes,  27 
Stripping  Paint  off  Woodwork,  81 
Stucco,  Blisters  on,  85 

- -  Front,  Building  Scaffold  on,  20 

- ,  Lime,  92 

- ,  Painting,  92-105 

Sugar  of  Lead,  12 
Sulphuric  Acid,  Washing  Plaster 
with,  93 


160 


PRACTICAL  PAINTERS'  WORK. 


Surfacing,  72,  74 
Sweating  of  Varnish,  137 
Teak,  Varnishing,  133 
Terebene,  48-50 
Terre  Alba,  99 
Tools  and  Appliances,  17-38 
Torbay  Oxide  Paint,  57 
Torrance’s  “  Little  Giant  ”  Paint 
Mixer,  63 

Travelling  Cradle,  Palmer’s,  19 
Trestles,  118 
Turpentine,  47 

- ,  American,  47 

— ,  Benzoline  as  Substitute  for,  47 
- ,  Oil  of,  47 

— ,  Petroleum  Spirit  as  Substitute 
for,  47 

— ,  Purity  of,  47 
Tying  Brushes,  24,  25 
Varnish,  Blisters  on,  137 

- Blooming,  136  . 

-  Brashes,  31,  138 

- Clouding,  136 

- Cracking,  136 

-  Creeping,  137,  138 

- ,  Faults  in,  135-138 

- Flaking,  138 

- Flatting,  137 

— ,  Oak,  133 

— ,  Old,  Removing,  138,  139 
— ,  Oil,  130 
--  Pitchpine,  133 

-  Pitting,  135,  136 

- ,  Qualities  of  Good,  131 

— ,  Removing  Finger-marks  from. 
138 

- ,  Sanding,  136 

— ,  Spots  on,  137 

- Sweating,  137 

— ,  Testing  Elasticity  of,  131 
Varnished  Surface,  Polishing,  135 
Varnishing,  130-139 

-  Ballroom  Floor,  142 

- ,  Bill  of  Quantities  for,  150,  151 

- ,  Cleanliness  Necessary  for,  132 

- ,  Estimating  for,  152,  153 

- Hall,  142,  143 

- ,  Measuring,  152 

—  Painted  Woodwork,  134 

-  Pine  Dado,  142 

— -  Teak,  133 


Varnishing  Woodwork,  133,  134 
Velure,  54 
Vernolene,  56 

Wainscotings,  Measuring,  148 
Wall,  Colouring,  with  Distemper, 
99,  100 

- ,  Distemper  for  Basement,  100 

- ,  Repainting  Staircase,  123 

— ,  Whitewash  for  Exterior,  100 
Wall-paper,  Distempering  on,  99 
Walnut  Oil,  46 
Wapicti,  54 

Washable  Distempers,  101-105 

- - ,  Hall’s  Sanitary,  56,  57 

Waterproof  Paper,  Willesden,  129 
White,  Freeman’s,  41 

- Paints,  Mixing,  66 

-  Pigments,  40,  50 

- ,  Zinc  ( see  Zinc) 

White-lead,  11,  14,  39,  40,  50,  89,  90 

- ,  Covering  Power  of,  Testing, 

42 

- ,  Driers  for,  48,  49 

- ,  Fineness  of,  42 

- ,  Impurities  in,  41,  42 

- ,  Opacity  of,  42 

- Putty,  73 

-  Substitutes,  40 

- ,  Testing,  41-43 

Whitewash  for  Ceilings,  98 

—  -  Exterior  Wall,  100 

- ,  Preparing,  98 

Whitewashing  Machine,  Star,  38 
Willesden  Waterproof  Paper,  129 
Windows,  Measuring,  147,  148 

- ,  Painting,  125 

Wolverhampton  Oxide  Paint,  Cros- 
bie’s,  57 

Wood,  Absorptive  Power  of,  147 
Woodwork,  Blisters  on  Painted,  85 

- ,  Filling  for,  75 

- ,  Painting,  11,  80-86 

- ,  Priming,  before  Painting,  82 

- ,  Removing  Grease  from,  81 

- ,  Stripping  Paint  from,  81 

- ,  Varnishing,  134 

Yellow  Paints,  Mixing,  66 

-  Pigments,  52 

Young’s  Size,  98 
Zinc  White,  40,  41 


Printed  by  Cassell  &  Company,  Limited,  La  Belle  Satjvaoe,  E.C. 


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6J0  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


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TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Important  New  Series  of  Practical  Volumes.  Edited  by  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK. 
With  numerous  Illustrations  in  the  Text.  Each  book  contains  about  160  pages,  1 
crown  8vo.  Cloth,  $1.00  each,  postpaid. 

Practical  Draughtsmen’s  Work.  With  226  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Drawing  Boards.  Paper  and  Mounting.  Draughtsmen’s  Instruments. 
Drawing  Straight  Lines.  Drawing  Circular  Lines.  Elliptical  Curves.  Projection. 
Back  Lining  Drawings.  Scale  Drawings  and  Maps.  Colouring  Drawings.  Making  a 
Drawing.  Index- 

Practical  Gasfitting.  With  120  Illustration^. 

Contents. — How  Coal  Gas  is  Made.  Coal  Gas  from  the  Retort  to  the  Gas  Holder. 
Gas  Supply  from  Gas  Plolder  to  Meter.  Laying  the  Gas  Pipe  in  the  House.  Gas  ; 
Meters.  Gas  Burners.  Incandescent  Lights.  Gas  Fittings  in  Workshops  and  Theatres. 
Gas  Fittings  for  Festival  Illuminations.  Gas  Fires  and  Cooking  Stoves.  Index. 

Practical  Staircase  Joinery.  With  215  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Introduction:  Explanation  of  Terms.  Simple  form  of  Staircase — Housed 
String  Stair:  Measuring,  Planning,  and  Setting  Out.  Two-flight  Staircase.  Staircase  I 
with  Winders  at  Bottom.  Staircase  with  Winders  at  Top  and  Bottom.  Staircase  with 
Half-space  of  Winders.  Staircase  over  an  Oblique  Plan.  Staircase  with  Open  or  Cut 
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Step.  Geometrical  Staircases.  Winding  Staircases.  Ships’  Staircases.  Index. 

Practical  Metal  Plate  Work.  With  247  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Materials  used  in  Metal  Plate  Work.  Geometrical  Construction  of  Plane  ! 
Figures.  Geometrical  Construction  and  Development  of  Solid .  Figures.  Tools  and 
Appliances  used  in  Metal  Plate  W ork.  Soldering  and  Brazing.  Tinning.  Re-tinning, 
and  Galvanising.  Examples  of  Practical  Metal  Plate  Work.  Examples  of  Practical  j 
Pattern  Drawing.  Index. 

Practical  Graining  and  Marbling.  With  79  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Graining:  Introduction,  Tools  and  Mechanical  Aids.  Graining  Grounds 
and  Graining  Colors.  Oak  Graining  in  Oil.  Oak  Graining  in  Spirit  and  Water  Colours. 
Pollard  Oak  and  Knotted  Oak  Graining.  Maple  Graining.  Mahogany  and  Pitch-pine 
Graining.  Walnut  Graining.  Fancy  Wood  Graining.  Furniture  Graining.  Imitating 
Woods  by  Staining.  Imitating  Inlaid  Woods.  Marbling:  Introduction,  Tools,  and 
Materials.  Imitating  Varieties  of  Marble.  Index. 

Painters’  Oils,  Colors  and  Varnishes.  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Painters’  Oils.  Color  and  Pigments.  White  Pigments.  Blue  Pigments. 
Chrome  Pigments.  Lake  Pigments.  Green  Pigments.  Red  Pigments.  Brown  and  Black- 
Pigments.  Yellow  and  Orange  Pigments.  Bronze  Colors.  Driers.  Taint  Grinding  and 
Mixing.  Gums,  Oils,  and  Solvents  for  Varnishes.  Varnish  Manufacture.  Index. 

Practical  Plumber’s  Work.  With  298  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Materials  and  Tools  Used.  Solder  and  How  to  Make  It.  Sheet  Lead  Work¬ 
ing.  Pipe  Bending.  Pipe  Jointing.  Lead  Burning.  Lead-work  on  Roofs.  Index. 

Practical  Pattern  Slaking.  W’ith  300  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Foundry  Patterns  and  Foundry  Practice.  Jointing-up  Patterns.  Finishing 
Patterns.  Circular  Patterns  Making  Core-Boxes.  Coring  Holes  in  Castings.  Patterns 
and  Moulds  for  Iron  Columns.  Steam-Engine  Cylinder  Patterns  and  Core-Boxes.  Worm 
Wheel  Pattern.  Lathe-bed  Patterns.  Ileadstock  and  Poppet  Patterns.  Slide-rest 
Patterns.  Miscellaneous  Patterns  and  Core-boxes.  Index. 


TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION 


MR.  HENRY  DOSCHER 
341  NORTH  M  STREET 
LIVERMORE,  CALIF. 


Practical  Handrailing.  With  144  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Principles  of  Handrailing.  Definition  of  Terms.  Geometrical  Drawing. 
Simple  Handrails.  Wreathed  Handrails  on  the  Cylindrical  System.  The  Uses  of  Models. 
Obtaining  Tangents  and  Bevels.  Face  Moulds:  their  Construction  and  Use.  Twisting 
the  Wreath.  Completing  the  Handrail.  Orthogonal  or  Right-angle  System  of  Setting 
Wreathed  Handrails.  Handrails  for  Stone  Stairs.  Setting  out  Scrolls  for  Handrails. 
Setting  out  Moulded  Caps.  Intersecting  Handrails  without  Basements.  Index. 
Practical  Brickwork.  With  368  Illustrations. 

Contents. — English  and  Flemish  Bonds.  Garden  and  Boundary  Walls.  Bonds  for 
Square  Angles.  Excavations,  Foundations,  and  Footings.  Junctions  of  Cross  Walls. 
Reveals,  Piers.  Angles  and  other  Bonds.  Jointing  and  Pointing.  Damp-proof  Courses 
and  Construction.  Hollow  or  Cavity  Walls.  Chimneys  and  Fireplaces.  Gauged  Work 
and  Arches.  Niches  and  Domes.  Oriel  Windows. 

Practical  Painters’  Work.  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Objects,  Principles  and  Processes  of  Painting.  Painters’  Tools  and  Appli¬ 
ances.  Materials  used  by  Painters  Paint  Mixing.  Preparing  Surfaces  for  Painting, 
Painting  Woodwork,  Painting  Ironwork,  Painting  Stucco  or  Plaster;  Distempering 
and  Whitewashing  Color  Combination.  House  Painting.  Varnish  and  Varnishing.  Stains 
and  Staining.  Estimating  and  Measuring  Painters’  Work.  Index. 

Other  Volumes  in  Preparation 

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